The Biology of Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. (Plumbaginaceae) in Coastal Wetlands
Main Article Content
Abstract
Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. is a New World humid continental, temperate, subtropical, and tropical maritime taxon. It is a long-lived perennial that is found in wet sand and clay mineral soils. This species is a salt tolerant halophyte where salinity values approach 30 parts per thousand. Reproduction is primarily vegetative. However, seed production is estimated at 1,000 to 10,000 per individual plant. Also known as sea lavender, it has been suggested as a species that can be used for re-vegetation efforts. Inflorescences of this species are often harvested for dried floral arrangements.
Article Details
How to Cite
STALTER, Richard; LONARD, Robert I.; JUDD, Frank W..
The Biology of Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. (Plumbaginaceae) in Coastal Wetlands.
International Biology Review, [S.l.], n. 3, june 2016.
ISSN 2572-7168.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/ibr/article/view/438>. Date accessed: 18 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/ibr.v0i3.438.
Keywords
Sea lavender, morphology, habitats, communities, population ecology, physiological ecology, economic values
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Section
Articles
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Authors will be required to fill out the below copyright transfer form during the peer-review process and attach it along with their submission. In return, Knowledge Enterprises Journals grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by Knowledge Enterprises Journals.
References
Adams, D.A.1963. Factors influencing vascular plant zonation in North Carolina salt marshes.
Ecology 44(3):445-456.
Alexander, H.D. and K.H. Dunton. 2006. Treated wastewater effluent as an alternative
freshwater source in a hypersaline salt marsh: Impacts on salinity, inorganic nitrogen,
and emergent vegetation. Journal of Coastal Research 22(2):377-392.
Anderson, L.C. and L.L. Alexander. 1985. The vegetation of Dog Island, Florida. Florida
Scientist 48(4):232-251.
Anonymous. 2015. Medicinal herbs: sea lavender- Limonium carolinianum.
http://www.naturalmedicinalherbs.net/herbs/limonium-carolinianum=sea-lavender.php.
Antlfinger, A.E. and E. L. Dunn. 1983. Water use and salt balance in three salt marsh
succulents. American Journal of Botany 70(4):561-567.
Baltzer, J.L.; H.L. Hewlin; E.G. Reekie, and P.D. Taylor. 2002a. The impact of flower
harvesting on seedling recruitment in sea lavender (Limonium carolinianum,
Plumbaginaceae). Rhodora 104(919):280-295.
Baltzer, J.L.; E.G. Reekie; H.L. Hewlin; P.D. Taylor, and J.S. Boates. 2002b. Impact of
flowering on the harvesting of the salt marsh plant Limonium carolinianum. Canadian
Journal of Botany 80(8):841-851.
Booker, F.L., E.D. Seneca, and U. Blum. 1989. Effects of weathered fuel oil on solute leakage,
respiration and plasmolysis in excised root sections of Spartina alterniflora Loisel. and
Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. Environmental and Experimental Botany 29(2):
249-259.
Cavalieri, A.J. and A.H.C. Huang. 1979. Evaluation of proline accumulation in the adaptation of
diverse species of marsh halophytes to the saline environment. American Journal of
Botany 66(3):307-312.
Correll, D.S. and H.B. Correll. 1972. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southwestern United
States. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency 1777p.
Cortinhas, A.; M.Erben,; A. Paula Paes; D. Espírito-Santo; M. Guara-Requena, and A.D.Caperta.
2015. Taxonomic complexity in the halophyte Limonium vulgare and related taxa
(Plumbaginaceae): Insights from analysis of morphological, reproductive and karyological data. Annals of Botany 115(3):369-393.
Drawe, D.L.; K.R. Kattner; W.H. McFarland, and D.D. Nehr. 1981. Vegetation and soil
properties of five habitat types on North Padre Island. Texas Journal of Science 33(2,3,4):145-157.
Duncan, W.H. 1974. Vascular halophytes of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America
north of Mexico. In: Reimold, R.J. and W.H. Queen. (eds.). Ecology of Halophytes.
New York: Academic Press. pp. 23-50.
Dunlop, D.A. and G.E. Crow. 1985. The vegetation and flora of the Seabrook Dunes with
special reference to rare plants. Rhodora 87(852):471-486.
Eleuterius, L.N. and J.D. Caldwell. 1984. Flowering phenology of tidal marsh plants in
Mississippi. Castanea 49(4):172-179.
Eleuterius, L.N. and S. McDaniel. 1978. The salt marsh flora of Mississippi. Castanea 43(2):
86-95.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2005. Flora of North America: North of Mexico,
Magnoliophyta: Carophyllidae, Part 2. Volume 5. New York: Oxford University Press.
690p.
Gedan, K.B, C.M. Crain, and M.D. Bertness. 2009. Small-mammal herbivore control of
secondary succession in New England tidal marshes. Ecology 90(2):430-440.
Hacker, S.D. and M.D. Bertness. 1999. Experimental evidence for factors maintaining plant
species diversity in a New England salt marsh. Ecology 80(6):2064-2073.
Hamilton, M.B. 1997. Genetic fingerprint-inferred population subdivision and spatial genetic
tests for isolation by distance and adaptation in the coastal plant Limonium carolinianum.
Evolution 51(5):1457-1468.
Harvill, A.M., Jr. 1965. The vegetation of Parramore Island, Virginia. Castanea 30(4):226-228.
Heinsch, F.A.; J.L. Heilman; K.J. McInnes; D.R. Cobos,; D.A. Zuberer, and D.L. Roelke.
2004. Carbon dioxide exchange in a high marsh in the Texas Gulf Coast: Effects of
freshwater availability. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 125(1,2):159-172.
Hill, S.R. 1986. An annotated checklist of the vascular flora of Assateague Island (Maryland
and Virginia). Castanea 51(4):265-305.
Judd, F.W., R.I. Lonard, and S.L. Sides. 1977. The vegetation of South Padre Island, Texas
in relation to topography. Southwestern Naturalist 22(1):31-48.
Lehman, R.L. 2013. Marine Plants of the Texas Coast. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M
University Press. 205p.
Lonard, R.I. and F.W. Judd. 1980. Phytogeography of South Padre Island, Texas. Southwestern
Naturalist 25(3):313-322.
Lonard, R.I. and F.W. Judd. 1989. Phenology of native angiosperms of South Padre Island,
Texas. In: Bragg, T. and J. Stubbendieck. (eds.). Proceedings of the Eleventh North
American Prairie Conference. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Printing. pp.
217-222.
Lonard, R.I., F.W. Judd, and E. H. Smith. 2003. Recovery of vegetation following a wild fire on
the margins of tidal flats, Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Texas Journal of
Science 55(4):15-34.
Luteyn, J.L. 1976. Revision of Limonium (Plumbaginaceae) in Eastern North America.
Brittonia 28(3):303-317.
Luteyn, J.L. 1990. The Plumbaginaceae in the flora of the Southeastern United States. Sida,
14(2):169-178.
Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants. 2nd
edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. 858p.
Nelson, A.D., J.R. Goetze; I.G. Negrete; V.E.French,; M.P. Johnson, and L.M. Macke. 2000.
Vegetational analysis and floristics of four communities in the Big Ball region of Padre
Island National Seashore. Southwestern Naturalist 45(4):31-442.
Oosting, H.J. 1954. Ecological processes and vegetation of the maritime strand in the
Southeastern United States. Botanical Review 20(4):226-262.
Perry, J.E. and R.B. Atkinson. 1997. Plant diversity along a salinity gradient of four marshes
on the York and Pamunkey rivers in Virginia. Castanea 62(2):112-118.
Proffitt, C.E.; R. L. Chaisson; A.B. Owens; R.R. Edwards, and S.E. Travis. 2005. Spartina
alterniflora genotype influences facilitation and suppression of high marsh species
colonizing an early successional salt marsh. Journal of Ecology 93(2):404-416.
Rachlin, J.W.; R. Stalter; D. Kincaid, and B.E. Warkentine. 2012. Parsimony analysis of
East Coast salt marsh plant distributions. Northeastern Naturalist 19(2):279-296.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas.
Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. 1183p.
Richards, C.L., S.C. Pennings, and L.A. Donovan. 2005. Habitat range and phenotypic
variation in salt marsh plants. Plant Ecology 176(2):263-273.
Richardson, A. and K. King. 2011. Plants of Deep South Texas: A Field Guide to the Woody &
Flowering Species. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. 457p.
Rietsma, C.S., R.O. Monteiro, and I. Valiela, I. 2011. Plant cover, herbivory, and resiliency in a
Cape Cod salt marsh: Multi-year responses and recovery following manipulation of
nutrients and competition. Estuaries and Coasts 34(1):198-210.
Savile, D.B.O. and I.L.Conners. 1951. The rusts of Armeria and Limonium in North America.
Mycologia 43(2):186-195.
Sei, M. and A.H. Porter. 2003. Microhabitat-specific early-larval survival of the maritime ringlet
(Coenonympha tullia nipisiquit). Animal Conservation 6(1):55-61.
Shumway, S.W. and M.D. Bertness. 1992. Salt stress limitations of seedling recruitment in a
salt marsh plant community. Oecologia 92(4):490-497.
Smith, S.M., M.C. Tyrrell, and M. Congretel. 2013. Palatability of salt marsh forbs and grasses
to the purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum) and the potential for re-vegetation of
herbivory-induced salt marsh dieback in Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA). Wetlands
Ecological Management 21(4):263-275.
Stalter, R. 1968. An Ecological Study of a South Carolina Salt Marsh. Columbia, South
Carolina: University of South Carolina, Ph.D. thesis, 62p.
Stalter, R. 1973. Transplantation of salt marsh vegetation. II, Georgetown, South Carolina.
Castanea 38(2):132-139.
Stalter, R. 1974. Vegetation in coastal dunes of South Carolina. Castanea 39(1):95-103.
Stalter, R. 1994. The vegetation of Little Beach Island, New Jersey. Bartonia 58:97-100.
Stalter, R.; A. Jung; A. Starosta; J.Baden, and M.D. Byer. 2006. Effect of wrack accumulation
on salt marsh vegetation, Baruch Institute, Georgetown County, South Carolina.
Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 88:305-313.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 1990. The vascular flora of Assateague Island, Virginia. Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club 117(1):48-56.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 2000. Vascular flora of Fishermans Island, Virginia. Journal of the
Torrey Botanical Society 127(4):324-332.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 2002. Vascular flora of Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge, New York.
Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 129(4):346-358.
Stalter, R., E.E. Lamont, and J. Northrup. 1986. Vegetation of Fire Island, New York. Bulletin of
the Torrey Botanical Club 113(3):298-306.
Stalter, R., M. Leyva, and D.T. Kincaid. 1999a. The flora of Indian shell rings from coastal
South Carolina to northern Florida. Sida, 18(3):497-510.
Stalter, R.; J. Tamory; P. Lynch, and B. Lockwood. 1999b. The vascular flora of Biscayne
National Park, Florida. Sida 18(4):1207-1226.
Stutzenbaker, C.D. 1999. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Western Gulf Coast. Austin, Texas;
University of Texas Press. 465p.
Vivian-Smith, G. and E.W. Stiles. 1994. Dispersal of salt marsh seeds on the feet and feathers of
waterfowl. Wetlands 14(4):316-319.
Wright, A.J., R.J. Edwards, and O. van de Plassche. 2011. Reassessing transfer-function
performance in sea-level reconstruction based on benthic salt-marsh foraminifera from
the Atlantic coast of NE North America. Marine Micropaleontology 81(1,2):43-62.
Ecology 44(3):445-456.
Alexander, H.D. and K.H. Dunton. 2006. Treated wastewater effluent as an alternative
freshwater source in a hypersaline salt marsh: Impacts on salinity, inorganic nitrogen,
and emergent vegetation. Journal of Coastal Research 22(2):377-392.
Anderson, L.C. and L.L. Alexander. 1985. The vegetation of Dog Island, Florida. Florida
Scientist 48(4):232-251.
Anonymous. 2015. Medicinal herbs: sea lavender- Limonium carolinianum.
http://www.naturalmedicinalherbs.net/herbs/limonium-carolinianum=sea-lavender.php.
Antlfinger, A.E. and E. L. Dunn. 1983. Water use and salt balance in three salt marsh
succulents. American Journal of Botany 70(4):561-567.
Baltzer, J.L.; H.L. Hewlin; E.G. Reekie, and P.D. Taylor. 2002a. The impact of flower
harvesting on seedling recruitment in sea lavender (Limonium carolinianum,
Plumbaginaceae). Rhodora 104(919):280-295.
Baltzer, J.L.; E.G. Reekie; H.L. Hewlin; P.D. Taylor, and J.S. Boates. 2002b. Impact of
flowering on the harvesting of the salt marsh plant Limonium carolinianum. Canadian
Journal of Botany 80(8):841-851.
Booker, F.L., E.D. Seneca, and U. Blum. 1989. Effects of weathered fuel oil on solute leakage,
respiration and plasmolysis in excised root sections of Spartina alterniflora Loisel. and
Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. Environmental and Experimental Botany 29(2):
249-259.
Cavalieri, A.J. and A.H.C. Huang. 1979. Evaluation of proline accumulation in the adaptation of
diverse species of marsh halophytes to the saline environment. American Journal of
Botany 66(3):307-312.
Correll, D.S. and H.B. Correll. 1972. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southwestern United
States. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency 1777p.
Cortinhas, A.; M.Erben,; A. Paula Paes; D. Espírito-Santo; M. Guara-Requena, and A.D.Caperta.
2015. Taxonomic complexity in the halophyte Limonium vulgare and related taxa
(Plumbaginaceae): Insights from analysis of morphological, reproductive and karyological data. Annals of Botany 115(3):369-393.
Drawe, D.L.; K.R. Kattner; W.H. McFarland, and D.D. Nehr. 1981. Vegetation and soil
properties of five habitat types on North Padre Island. Texas Journal of Science 33(2,3,4):145-157.
Duncan, W.H. 1974. Vascular halophytes of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America
north of Mexico. In: Reimold, R.J. and W.H. Queen. (eds.). Ecology of Halophytes.
New York: Academic Press. pp. 23-50.
Dunlop, D.A. and G.E. Crow. 1985. The vegetation and flora of the Seabrook Dunes with
special reference to rare plants. Rhodora 87(852):471-486.
Eleuterius, L.N. and J.D. Caldwell. 1984. Flowering phenology of tidal marsh plants in
Mississippi. Castanea 49(4):172-179.
Eleuterius, L.N. and S. McDaniel. 1978. The salt marsh flora of Mississippi. Castanea 43(2):
86-95.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 2005. Flora of North America: North of Mexico,
Magnoliophyta: Carophyllidae, Part 2. Volume 5. New York: Oxford University Press.
690p.
Gedan, K.B, C.M. Crain, and M.D. Bertness. 2009. Small-mammal herbivore control of
secondary succession in New England tidal marshes. Ecology 90(2):430-440.
Hacker, S.D. and M.D. Bertness. 1999. Experimental evidence for factors maintaining plant
species diversity in a New England salt marsh. Ecology 80(6):2064-2073.
Hamilton, M.B. 1997. Genetic fingerprint-inferred population subdivision and spatial genetic
tests for isolation by distance and adaptation in the coastal plant Limonium carolinianum.
Evolution 51(5):1457-1468.
Harvill, A.M., Jr. 1965. The vegetation of Parramore Island, Virginia. Castanea 30(4):226-228.
Heinsch, F.A.; J.L. Heilman; K.J. McInnes; D.R. Cobos,; D.A. Zuberer, and D.L. Roelke.
2004. Carbon dioxide exchange in a high marsh in the Texas Gulf Coast: Effects of
freshwater availability. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 125(1,2):159-172.
Hill, S.R. 1986. An annotated checklist of the vascular flora of Assateague Island (Maryland
and Virginia). Castanea 51(4):265-305.
Judd, F.W., R.I. Lonard, and S.L. Sides. 1977. The vegetation of South Padre Island, Texas
in relation to topography. Southwestern Naturalist 22(1):31-48.
Lehman, R.L. 2013. Marine Plants of the Texas Coast. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M
University Press. 205p.
Lonard, R.I. and F.W. Judd. 1980. Phytogeography of South Padre Island, Texas. Southwestern
Naturalist 25(3):313-322.
Lonard, R.I. and F.W. Judd. 1989. Phenology of native angiosperms of South Padre Island,
Texas. In: Bragg, T. and J. Stubbendieck. (eds.). Proceedings of the Eleventh North
American Prairie Conference. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Printing. pp.
217-222.
Lonard, R.I., F.W. Judd, and E. H. Smith. 2003. Recovery of vegetation following a wild fire on
the margins of tidal flats, Padre Island National Seashore, Texas. Texas Journal of
Science 55(4):15-34.
Luteyn, J.L. 1976. Revision of Limonium (Plumbaginaceae) in Eastern North America.
Brittonia 28(3):303-317.
Luteyn, J.L. 1990. The Plumbaginaceae in the flora of the Southeastern United States. Sida,
14(2):169-178.
Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants. 2nd
edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. 858p.
Nelson, A.D., J.R. Goetze; I.G. Negrete; V.E.French,; M.P. Johnson, and L.M. Macke. 2000.
Vegetational analysis and floristics of four communities in the Big Ball region of Padre
Island National Seashore. Southwestern Naturalist 45(4):31-442.
Oosting, H.J. 1954. Ecological processes and vegetation of the maritime strand in the
Southeastern United States. Botanical Review 20(4):226-262.
Perry, J.E. and R.B. Atkinson. 1997. Plant diversity along a salinity gradient of four marshes
on the York and Pamunkey rivers in Virginia. Castanea 62(2):112-118.
Proffitt, C.E.; R. L. Chaisson; A.B. Owens; R.R. Edwards, and S.E. Travis. 2005. Spartina
alterniflora genotype influences facilitation and suppression of high marsh species
colonizing an early successional salt marsh. Journal of Ecology 93(2):404-416.
Rachlin, J.W.; R. Stalter; D. Kincaid, and B.E. Warkentine. 2012. Parsimony analysis of
East Coast salt marsh plant distributions. Northeastern Naturalist 19(2):279-296.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas.
Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. 1183p.
Richards, C.L., S.C. Pennings, and L.A. Donovan. 2005. Habitat range and phenotypic
variation in salt marsh plants. Plant Ecology 176(2):263-273.
Richardson, A. and K. King. 2011. Plants of Deep South Texas: A Field Guide to the Woody &
Flowering Species. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. 457p.
Rietsma, C.S., R.O. Monteiro, and I. Valiela, I. 2011. Plant cover, herbivory, and resiliency in a
Cape Cod salt marsh: Multi-year responses and recovery following manipulation of
nutrients and competition. Estuaries and Coasts 34(1):198-210.
Savile, D.B.O. and I.L.Conners. 1951. The rusts of Armeria and Limonium in North America.
Mycologia 43(2):186-195.
Sei, M. and A.H. Porter. 2003. Microhabitat-specific early-larval survival of the maritime ringlet
(Coenonympha tullia nipisiquit). Animal Conservation 6(1):55-61.
Shumway, S.W. and M.D. Bertness. 1992. Salt stress limitations of seedling recruitment in a
salt marsh plant community. Oecologia 92(4):490-497.
Smith, S.M., M.C. Tyrrell, and M. Congretel. 2013. Palatability of salt marsh forbs and grasses
to the purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum) and the potential for re-vegetation of
herbivory-induced salt marsh dieback in Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA). Wetlands
Ecological Management 21(4):263-275.
Stalter, R. 1968. An Ecological Study of a South Carolina Salt Marsh. Columbia, South
Carolina: University of South Carolina, Ph.D. thesis, 62p.
Stalter, R. 1973. Transplantation of salt marsh vegetation. II, Georgetown, South Carolina.
Castanea 38(2):132-139.
Stalter, R. 1974. Vegetation in coastal dunes of South Carolina. Castanea 39(1):95-103.
Stalter, R. 1994. The vegetation of Little Beach Island, New Jersey. Bartonia 58:97-100.
Stalter, R.; A. Jung; A. Starosta; J.Baden, and M.D. Byer. 2006. Effect of wrack accumulation
on salt marsh vegetation, Baruch Institute, Georgetown County, South Carolina.
Transactions on Ecology and the Environment 88:305-313.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 1990. The vascular flora of Assateague Island, Virginia. Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club 117(1):48-56.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 2000. Vascular flora of Fishermans Island, Virginia. Journal of the
Torrey Botanical Society 127(4):324-332.
Stalter, R. and E.E. Lamont. 2002. Vascular flora of Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge, New York.
Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 129(4):346-358.
Stalter, R., E.E. Lamont, and J. Northrup. 1986. Vegetation of Fire Island, New York. Bulletin of
the Torrey Botanical Club 113(3):298-306.
Stalter, R., M. Leyva, and D.T. Kincaid. 1999a. The flora of Indian shell rings from coastal
South Carolina to northern Florida. Sida, 18(3):497-510.
Stalter, R.; J. Tamory; P. Lynch, and B. Lockwood. 1999b. The vascular flora of Biscayne
National Park, Florida. Sida 18(4):1207-1226.
Stutzenbaker, C.D. 1999. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Western Gulf Coast. Austin, Texas;
University of Texas Press. 465p.
Vivian-Smith, G. and E.W. Stiles. 1994. Dispersal of salt marsh seeds on the feet and feathers of
waterfowl. Wetlands 14(4):316-319.
Wright, A.J., R.J. Edwards, and O. van de Plassche. 2011. Reassessing transfer-function
performance in sea-level reconstruction based on benthic salt-marsh foraminifera from
the Atlantic coast of NE North America. Marine Micropaleontology 81(1,2):43-62.