Policing as a Social Determinant of Health: The Impact of Drug Enforcement on Prenatal Care Utilization in Urban Communities.
Main Article Content
Abstract
Background: Prenatal care is an important health behavior for optimizing maternal-child outcomes. Social ecological studies have identified both individual- and community-level factors that significantly impact this health behavior. While public health researchers have demonstrated that police officers can act as both barriers and facilitators to health promoting behaviors, little is known about their effect on women’s adequacy of prenatal care utilization (APNCU).
Aim of the Study: Use a mixed-model procedure that nests individuals within their census-tracts of residence to examine the effects of drug arrests (a common police strategy in vulnerable communities) on APNCU among pregnant women residing in an urban setting.
Results: While controlling for several known individual-level factors (i.e., maternal age, education, and pregnancy risk/complications), the study found that police drug arrests negatively impacted APNCU, as did structural disadvantage, distance to primary care, and residential stability. As expected all three individual-level factors positively impacted APNCU.
Conclusions: This research demonstrates that the police are an important social determinant of prenatal care and further supports the limited research on the effect of American policing tactics on community health promotion/disease prevention efforts. We hope this research initiates a new policy paradigm that views the police as an institution of public health as much as an institution of criminal justice.
Keywords:
Prenatal care, police, health behavior, social determinants of health, violence, vulnerable populations
Article Details
How to Cite
O'BRIEN, Anne-Marie; KANE, Robert J..
Policing as a Social Determinant of Health: The Impact of Drug Enforcement on Prenatal Care Utilization in Urban Communities..
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 6, n. 2, feb. 2018.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/1648>. Date accessed: 14 nov. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v6i2.1648.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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22. Hacker K, Chu J, Leung C, Marra R, Pirie A, Brahimi M, et al. The impact of Immigration and Customs Enforcement on immigrant health: Perceptions of immigrants in Everett, Massachusetts, USA. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73(4):586–94.
23. Beletsky L, Heller D, Jenness SM, Neaigus A, Gelpi-Acosta C, Hagan H. Syringe access, syringe sharing, and police encounters among people who inject drugs in New York city: A community-level perspective. Int J Drug Policy. 2014;25(1):105–11.
24. Davis CS, Burris S, Kraut-Becher J, Lynch KG, Metzger D. Effects of an intensive street-level police intervention on syringe exchange program use in Philadelphia, Pa. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(2):233–6.
25. Flath N, Tobin K, King K, Lee A, Latkin C. Enduring Consequences From the War on Drugs: How Policing Practices Impact HIV Risk Among People Who Inject Drugs in Baltimore City. Subst Use Misuse. 2017;52(8):1003–10.
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27. Elijah A. The code of the street. Learn to be a Crim. 1999;5(5):151–61.
28. Kane RJ. On the limits of social control: Structural deterrence and the policing of “suppressible” crimes. Justice Q. 2006;23(2):186–213.
29. Kane RJ. Compromised police legitimacy as a predictor of violent crime in structurally disadvantaged communities. Criminology. 2005;43(2):469–97.
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32. Kane RJ, Cronin SW. Associations Between Order Maintenance Policing and Violent Crime. Crime Delinq [Internet]. 2013;59(6):910–29. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0011128709336940
33. Resignato AJ. Violent crime: a function of drug use or drug enforcement? Appl Econ. 2000;32(November 2012):681–8.
34. Cooper H, Moore L, Gruskin S, Krieger N. Characterizing perceived police violence: Implications for public health. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(7):1109–18.
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41. Schempf A, Strobino D, O’Campo P. Neighborhood effects on birthweight: An exploration of psychosocial and behavioral pathways in Baltimore, 1995-1996. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(1):100–10.
42. Sampson RJ, Groves WB. Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory. Am J Sociol [Internet]. 1989;94(4):774–802. Available from: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/229068
43. Walton E. Residential Segregation and Birth Weight among Racial and Ethnic Minorities in the United States. J Health Soc Behav [Internet]. 2009;50(4):427–42. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002214650905000404
44. Elo IT, Culhane JF. Variations in health and health behaviors by nativity among pregnant black women in Philadelphia. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(11):2185–92.
45. Cabral H, Fried LE, Levenson S, Amaro H, Zuckerman B. Foreign-born and US-born Black women: Differences in health behaviors and birth outcomes. Am J Public Health. 1990;80(1):70–2.
46. Galea S, Ahern J, Karpati A. A model of underlying socioeconomic vulnerability in human populations: Evidence from variability in population health and implications for public health. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(11):2417–30.
47. Turney K, Harknett K. Neighborhood Disadvantage, Residential Stability, and Perceptions of Instrumental Support Among New Mothers. J Fam Issues. 2010;31(4):499–524.
48. Bengiamin MI, Capitman JA, Ruwe MB. Disparities in initiation and adherence to prenatal care: Impact of insurance, race-ethnicity and nativity. Matern Child Health J. 2010;14(4):618–24.
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2. About preconception care and prenatal care [Internet]. US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. 2017 [cited 2017 Oct 24]. Available from: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/preconceptioncare/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx#citationscontent
3. Brooten D, Youngblut JM, Donahue D, Hamilton M, Hannan J, Neff DF. Women with high-risk pregnancies, problems, and APN interventions: Clinical scholarship. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2007;39(4):349–57.
4. Chen XK, Wen SW, Yang Q, Walker MC. Adequacy of prenatal care and neonatal mortality in infants born to mothers with and without antenatal high-risk conditions. Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007;47(2):122–7.
5. Kane RJ. The ecology of unhealthy places: Violence, birthweight, and the importance of territoriality in structurally disadvantaged communities. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73(11):1585–92.
6. Partridge S, Balayla J, Holcroft CA, Abenhaim HA. Inadequate prenatal care utilization and risks of infant mortality and poor birth outcome: A retrospective analysis of 28,729,765 U.S. deliveries over 8 years. Am J Perinatol. 2012;29(10):787–93.
7. Van Dijk JW, Anderko L, Stetzer F. The impact of Prenatal Care Coordination on birth outcomes. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2010;40:98–108.
8. Center for Health Statistics N. Maternal, Infant, and Child Health (MICH) [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2017 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hpdata2020/HP2020MCR-C26-MICH.pdf
9. Schneider M, Stokols D. Multilevel theories of behavior change: A social ecological framework. [Internet]. The handbook of health behavior change (3rd ed.). 2009. p. 85–105. Available from: http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=psyc6&NEWS=N&AN=2008-17602-005
10. Ward TCS, Mazul M, Ngui EM, Bridgewater FD, Harley AE. “You learn to go last”: Perceptions of prenatal care experiences among African-American women with limited incomes. Matern Child Health J. 2013;17(10):1753–9.
11. Slaughter-Acey JC, Caldwell CH, Misra DP. The Influence of Personal and Group Racism on Entry into Prenatal Care among African American Women. Changes. 2012;29(6):997–1003.
12. Rhodes SD, Mann L, Simán FM, Song E, Alonzo J, Downs M, et al. The impact of local immigration enforcement policies on the health of immigrant Hispanics/Latinos in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(2):329–37.
13. Downe S, Finlayson K, Walsh D, Lavender T. “Weighing up and balancing out”: A meta-synthesis of barriers to antenatal care for marginalised women in high-income countries. BJOG An Int J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009;116(4):518–29.
14. Morenoff JD. Neighborhood Mechanisms and the Spatial Dynamics of Birth Weight. Am J Sociol [Internet]. 2003;108(5):976–1017. Available from: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/374405
15. Gadson A, Akpovi E, Mehta PK. Exploring the social determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in prenatal care utilization and maternal outcome. Semin Perinatol [Internet]. 2017;41(5):308–17. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2017.04.008
16. Feijen-De Jong EI, Jansen DE, Baarveld F, Van Der Schans CP, Schellevis FG, Reijneveld SA. Determinants of late and/or inadequate use of prenatal healthcare in high-income countries: A systematic review. Vol. 22, European Journal of Public Health. 2012. p. 904–13.
17. Barcelona de Mendoza V, Harville EW, Savage J, Giarratano G. Experiences of Intimate Partner and Neighborhood Violence and Their Association With Mental Health in Pregnant Women. J Interpers Violence [Internet]. 2015; Available from: http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=medp&NEWS=N&AN=26576616
18. Marcus SM. Depression during pregnancy: rates, risks and consequences--Motherisk Update 2008. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;16(1):e15–22.
19. Seng JS, Low LK, Sperlich M, Ronis DL, Liberzon I. Prevalence, trauma history, and risk for posttraumatic stress disorder among nulliparous women in maternity care. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114(4):839–47.
20. Wilson DK, Van Horn ML, Siceloff ER, Alia KA, St. George SM, Lawman HG, et al. The Results of the “Positive Action for Today’s Health” (PATH) Trial for Increasing Walking and Physical Activity in Underserved African-American Communities. Ann Behav Med. 2015;49(3):398–410.
21. Stafford M, Cummins S, Ellaway A, Sacker A, Wiggins RD, Macintyre S. Pathways to obesity: Identifying local, modifiable determinants of physical activity and diet. Soc Sci Med. 2007;65(9):1882–97.
22. Hacker K, Chu J, Leung C, Marra R, Pirie A, Brahimi M, et al. The impact of Immigration and Customs Enforcement on immigrant health: Perceptions of immigrants in Everett, Massachusetts, USA. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73(4):586–94.
23. Beletsky L, Heller D, Jenness SM, Neaigus A, Gelpi-Acosta C, Hagan H. Syringe access, syringe sharing, and police encounters among people who inject drugs in New York city: A community-level perspective. Int J Drug Policy. 2014;25(1):105–11.
24. Davis CS, Burris S, Kraut-Becher J, Lynch KG, Metzger D. Effects of an intensive street-level police intervention on syringe exchange program use in Philadelphia, Pa. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(2):233–6.
25. Flath N, Tobin K, King K, Lee A, Latkin C. Enduring Consequences From the War on Drugs: How Policing Practices Impact HIV Risk Among People Who Inject Drugs in Baltimore City. Subst Use Misuse. 2017;52(8):1003–10.
26. Manning PK. The police: Mandate, strategies, and appearances. In: Manning PK, Van Maanen J, editors. Policing: A View from the Street. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear; 1978.
27. Elijah A. The code of the street. Learn to be a Crim. 1999;5(5):151–61.
28. Kane RJ. On the limits of social control: Structural deterrence and the policing of “suppressible” crimes. Justice Q. 2006;23(2):186–213.
29. Kane RJ. Compromised police legitimacy as a predictor of violent crime in structurally disadvantaged communities. Criminology. 2005;43(2):469–97.
30. Reisig MD, Lloyd C. Procedural Justice, Police Legitimacy, and Helping the Police Fight Crime. Police Q [Internet]. 2009;12(1):42–62. Available from: http://pqx.sagepub.com/content/12/1/42.abstract
31. Kurbin CE, Weitzer R. Retaliatory homocide: Concentrated disadvantage and neighbourhood culture. Soc Probl. 2003;50(2):157–80.
32. Kane RJ, Cronin SW. Associations Between Order Maintenance Policing and Violent Crime. Crime Delinq [Internet]. 2013;59(6):910–29. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0011128709336940
33. Resignato AJ. Violent crime: a function of drug use or drug enforcement? Appl Econ. 2000;32(November 2012):681–8.
34. Cooper H, Moore L, Gruskin S, Krieger N. Characterizing perceived police violence: Implications for public health. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(7):1109–18.
35. Veysey BM, Messner S. Further Testing of Social Disorganization Theory: An Elaboration of Sampson and Groves’s “Community Structure and Crime.” J Compos Mater. 1999;33(10):928–40.
36. Lowenkamp CT, Cullen FT, Pratt TC. Replicating Sampson and Groves’s Test of Social Disorganization Theory: Revisiting a Criminological Classic. J Res Crime Delinq. 2003;40(4):351–73.
37. Sampson RJ. Transcending tradition: New directions in community research, Chicago style. Criminology [Internet]. 2002;40(2):213–30. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00955.x/abstract
38. GR A, M K. Assessing the Role and Effectiveness of Prenatal Care: History, Challenges, and Directions for Ruture Research. Public Heal Rep. 2001;116(4):306–16.
39. Kogan MD, Martin J a., Alexander GR, Kotelchuck M, Ventura SJ, Frigoletto FD. The changing pattern of prenatal care utilization in the United States, 1981-1995, using different prenatal care indices. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 1998;279(20):1623–8.
40. Kotelchuck M. An evaluation of the Kessner Adequacy of Prenatal Care Index and a proposed Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(9):1414–20.
41. Schempf A, Strobino D, O’Campo P. Neighborhood effects on birthweight: An exploration of psychosocial and behavioral pathways in Baltimore, 1995-1996. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(1):100–10.
42. Sampson RJ, Groves WB. Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory. Am J Sociol [Internet]. 1989;94(4):774–802. Available from: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/229068
43. Walton E. Residential Segregation and Birth Weight among Racial and Ethnic Minorities in the United States. J Health Soc Behav [Internet]. 2009;50(4):427–42. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002214650905000404
44. Elo IT, Culhane JF. Variations in health and health behaviors by nativity among pregnant black women in Philadelphia. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(11):2185–92.
45. Cabral H, Fried LE, Levenson S, Amaro H, Zuckerman B. Foreign-born and US-born Black women: Differences in health behaviors and birth outcomes. Am J Public Health. 1990;80(1):70–2.
46. Galea S, Ahern J, Karpati A. A model of underlying socioeconomic vulnerability in human populations: Evidence from variability in population health and implications for public health. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(11):2417–30.
47. Turney K, Harknett K. Neighborhood Disadvantage, Residential Stability, and Perceptions of Instrumental Support Among New Mothers. J Fam Issues. 2010;31(4):499–524.
48. Bengiamin MI, Capitman JA, Ruwe MB. Disparities in initiation and adherence to prenatal care: Impact of insurance, race-ethnicity and nativity. Matern Child Health J. 2010;14(4):618–24.
49. Bryant AS, Worjoloh A, Caughey AB, Washington AE. Racial/ethnic disparities in obstetric outcomes and care: prevalence and determinants. Vol. 202, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2010. p. 335–43.
50. Kenny LC, Lavender T, McNamee R, O’Neill SM, Mills T, Khashan AS. Advanced Maternal Age and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome: Evidence from a Large Contemporary Cohort. PLoS One. 2013;8(2).
51. Peugh JL, Enders CK. Using the SPSS Mixed Procedure to Fit Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Multilevel Models. Educ Psychol Meas [Internet]. 2005;65(5):717–41. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013164405278558
52. Fox J. Regression Diagnostics: An Introduction. Beverly Hills: Sage; 1991.
53. Singer JD. Using SAS PROC MIXED to Fit Multilevel Models, Hierarchical Models, and Individual Growth Models. J Educ Behav Stat. 1998;23(4):323–55.
54. Beletsky L, Agrawal A, Moreau B, Kumar P, Weiss-Laxer N, Heimer R. Police training to align law enforcement and HIV prevention: Preliminary evidence from the field. Am J Public Health. 2011;101(11):2012–5.
55. Strathdee SA, Arredondo J, Rocha T, Abramovitz D, Rolon ML, Patiño Mandujano E, et al. A police education programme to integrate occupational safety and HIV prevention: protocol for a modified stepped-wedge study design with parallel prospective cohorts to assess behavioural outcomes. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2015;5(8):e008958. Available from: http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008958
56. Kneeshaw-Price SH, Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Frank LD, Grembowski DE, Hannon PA, et al. Neighborhood Crime-Related Safety and Its Relation to Children???s Physical Activity. J Urban Heal. 2015;92(3):472–89.
57. Patterson F, Seravalli L, Hanlon A, Nelson DB. Neighborhood safety as a correlate of tobacco use in a sample of urban, pregnant women. Addict Behav. 2012;37(10):1132–7.
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