Effects of Energy and Macronutrient Cycling on Weight Loss, Body Composition, and Markers of Health in Obese Women Participating in a Resistance-Based Exercise Program
Main Article Content
Abstract
Purpose: To determine whether adherence to a repeating 30-d non-linear diet intervention while participating in a supervised exercise program that includes resistance-exercise would promote weight and fat loss without weight loss plateau and whether alterations in carbohydrate and protein intake may influence results. Methods: Fifty sedentary and obese pre-menopausal females (35.2±7.6 years; 88.7±18 kg, 32.6±6 kg/m2, 42.5±4.2% fat) were randomly assigned to an exercise-only (EX) or EX plus diets containing higher proportions of carbohydrate or protein. Diets were hypoenergetic for 30-d (7-d at 1,200 kcals/d, 21-d at 1,500 kcal/d), more isoenergetic for 30-d (2,200 kcals/d), and repeated three times during a 24-wk intervention. Diets were either 45:30:24 (HCD) or 30:45:25 (HPD) carbohydate:protein:fat. All participants performed 30-min resistance exercise (3 d/wk) and a brisk walking program (3 d/wk). Data were analyzed by general linear model (GLM) statistics with repeated measures and presented as mean changes from baseline (mean [UL, LL]). Results: Participants experienced a significant and reduction in body weight (EX -2.24 [-6.5, 2.0], EX+HCD -6.99 [-9.4, -4.5], EX+HPD -4.49 [-7.1, -1.8] %), fat mass (EX -3.45 [-10.9, 4.03], EX+HCD -12.15 [-16.4, -7.9], EX+HPD -8.54 [-13.2, -3.9] %), and percent body fat (EX -1.30 [-5.6, 3.0], EX+HCD -5.91 [-8.3, -3.5], EX+HPD -4.31 [-7.0, -1.6] %) with those in the EX+HCD experiencing a more linear response. Participants in the EX and EX+HCD groups maintained fat-free mass to a better degree (EX -0.89 [-4.0, 2.2], EX+HCD -3.21 [-5.0, -1.2], EX+HPD -1.92 [-3.8, 0.002] %). Participants dieting generally experiencing greater benefit with some evidence that those in the EX+HPD experienced greater changes in blood lipids. Conclusion: A 30-day repeated non-linear diet can promote fat and weight loss without a plateau. Consuming a HPD may help maintain fat-free mass during weight loss and improve some markers of health compared to HCD interventions.
Keywords:
diet, linear, non-linear, high protein, high carbohydrate, resistance-training
Article Details
How to Cite
KRESTA, Julie et al.
Effects of Energy and Macronutrient Cycling on Weight Loss, Body Composition, and Markers of Health in Obese Women Participating in a Resistance-Based Exercise Program.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 8, n. 6, june 2020.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/2125>. Date accessed: 22 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v8i6.2125.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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32. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
33. Almada AL, Kreider RB, Ransom J, Rasmussen C. Comparison of the reliability of repeated whole body DEXA scans to repeated spine and hip scans. J Bone Miner Res. 1999;14:S369-S369.
34. Kerksick C, Thomas A, Campbell B, et al. Effects of a popular exercise and weight loss program on weight loss, body composition, energy expenditure and health in obese women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6(23).
35. Kreider R, Rasmussen C, Kerksick C, et al. A carbohydrate-restricted diet during resistance training promotes more favorable changes in body composition and markers of health in obese women with and without insulin resistance. Phys Sportsmed. 2011;39(2):27-40.
36. Kreider RB, Serra M, Beavers KM, et al. A structured diet and exercise program promotes favorable changes in weight loss, body composition, and weight maintenance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2011;111(6):828-843.
37. Page P. Beyond statistical significance: clinical interpretation of rehabilitation research literature. International journal of sports physical therapy. 2014;9(5):726-736.
38. Moro T, Tinsley G, Bianco A, et al. Effects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained males. J Transl Med. 2016;14(1):290.
39. Chin SH, Kahathuduwa CN, Binks M. Physical activity and obesity: what we know and what we need to know. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 2016;17(12):1226-1244.
40. Zubrzycki A, Cierpka-Kmiec K, Kmiec Z, Wronska A. The role of low-calorie diets and intermittent fasting in the treatment of obesity and type-2 diabetes. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2018;69(5).
41. Anton SD, Lee SA, Donahoo WT, et al. The Effects of Time Restricted Feeding on Overweight, Older Adults: A Pilot Study. Nutrients. 2019;11(7).
42. Antoni R, Johnston KL, Steele C, Carter D, Robertson MD, Capehorn MS. Efficacy of an intermittent energy restriction diet in a primary care setting. Eur J Nutr. 2019.
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44. Hutchison AT, Liu B, Wood RE, et al. Effects of Intermittent Versus Continuous Energy Intakes on Insulin Sensitivity and Metabolic Risk in Women with Overweight. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2019;27(1):50-58.
45. Pinto AM, Bordoli C, Buckner LP, et al. Intermittent energy restriction is comparable to continuous energy restriction for cardiometabolic health in adults with central obesity: A randomized controlled trial; the Met-IER study. Clin Nutr. 2019.
46. Clifton PM, Keogh JB, Noakes M. Long-term effects of a high-protein weight-loss diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(1):23-29.
47. Carter ND, Khan KM, McKay HA, et al. Community-based exercise program reduces risk factors for falls in 65- to 75-year-old women with osteoporosis: randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2002;167(9):997-1004.
48. Mateo-Gallego R, Marco-Benedi V, Perez-Calahorra S, et al. Energy-restricted, high-protein diets more effectively impact cardiometabolic profile in overweight and obese women than lower-protein diets. Clin Nutr. 2017;36(2):371-379.
49. Hunter GR, McCarthy JP, Bamman MM. Effects of resistance training on older adults. Sports Med. 2004;34(5):329-348.
2. Wilborn C, Beckham J, Campbell B, et al. Obesity: prevalence, theories, medical consequences, management, and research directions. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2005;2:4-31.
3. Buch A, Carmeli E, Boker LK, et al. Muscle function and fat content in relation to sarcopenia, obesity and frailty of old age--An overview. Exp Gerontol. 2016;76:25-32.
4. McCullough PA, Fallahzadeh MK, Hegazi RM. Nutritional Deficiencies and Sarcopenia in Heart Failure: A Therapeutic Opportunity to Reduce Hospitalization and Death. Rev Cardiovasc Med. 2016;17 Suppl 1:S30-S39.
5. Oh C, Jeon BH, Reid Storm SN, Jho S, No JK. The most effective factors to offset sarcopenia and obesity in the older Korean: Physical activity, vitamin D, and protein intake. Nutrition. 2017;33:169-173.
6. Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:16.
7. Mechanick JI, Youdim A, Jones DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the perioperative nutritional, metabolic, and nonsurgical support of the bariatric surgery patient--2013 update: cosponsored by American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the Obesity Society, and American Society for Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery. Surgery for obesity and related diseases : official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery. 2013;9(2):159-191.
8. Holderbaum M, Casagrande DS, Sussenbach S, Buss C. Effects of very low calorie diets on liver size and weight loss in the preoperative period of bariatric surgery: a systematic review. Surgery for obesity and related diseases : official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery. 2018;14(2):237-244.
9. Mahawar KK, Parmar C, Carr WR, et al. Preoperative Interventions for Patients Being Considered for Bariatric Surgery: Separating the Fact from Fiction. Obesity surgery. 2015;25(8):1527-1533.
10. Schneider J, Peterli R, Gass M, Slawik M, Peters T, Wolnerhanssen BK. Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass lead to equal changes in body composition and energy metabolism 17 months postoperatively: a prospective randomized trial. Surgery for obesity and related diseases : official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery. 2016;12(3):563-570.
11. Heshka S, Lemos T, Astbury NM, et al. Resting Energy Expenditure and Organ-Tissue Body Composition 5 Years After Bariatric Surgery. Obesity surgery. 2020;30(2):587-594.
12. Galbreath M, Campbell B, LaBounty P, et al. Effects of Adherence to a Higher Protein Diet on Weight Loss, Markers of Health, and Functional Capacity in Older Women Participating in a Resistance-Based Exercise Program. Nutrients. 2018;10(8).
13. Coletta AM, Sanchez B, O'Connor A, et al. Alignment of diet prescription to genotype does not promote greater weight loss success in women with obesity participating in an exercise and weight loss program. Obes Sci Pract. 2018;4(6):554-574.
14. Baetge C, Earnest CP, Lockard B, et al. Efficacy of a randomized trial examining commercial weight loss programs and exercise on metabolic syndrome in overweight and obese women. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2017;42(2):216-227.
15. Lockard B, Earnest CP, Oliver J, et al. Retrospective Analysis of Protein- and Carbohydrate-Focused Diets Combined with Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence in Overweight and Obese Women. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2016;14(4):228-237.
16. Magrans-Courtney T, Wilborn C, Rasmussen C, et al. Effects of diet type and supplementation of glucosamine, chondroitin, and MSM on body composition, functional status, and markers of health in women with knee osteoarthritis initiating a resistance-based exercise and weight loss program. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2011;8(1):8.
17. Kreider RB, Serra M, Beavers KM, et al. A structured diet and exercise program promotes favorable changes in weight loss, body composition, and weight maintenance. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 2011;111(6):828-843.
18. Kreider RB, Rasmussen C, Kerksick CM, et al. A carbohydrate-restricted diet during resistance training promotes more favorable changes in body composition and markers of health in obese women with and without insulin resistance. Phys Sportsmed. 2011;39(2):27-40.
19. Kerksick CM, Wismann-Bunn J, Fogt D, et al. Changes in weight loss, body composition and cardiovascular disease risk after altering macronutrient distributions during a regular exercise program in obese women. Nutrition journal. 2010;9:59.
20. Kerksick C, Thomas A, Campbell B, et al. Effects of a popular exercise and weight loss program on weight loss, body composition, energy expenditure and health in obese women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6:23.
21. Jebeile H, Gow ML, Lister NB, et al. Intermittent Energy Restriction Is a Feasible, Effective, and Acceptable Intervention to Treat Adolescents with Obesity. J Nutr. 2019;149(7):1189-1197.
22. Stiegler P, Cunliffe A. The role of diet and exercise for the maintenance of fat-free mass and resting metabolic rate during weight loss. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2006;36(3):239-262.
23. Muller MJ, Enderle J, Pourhassan M, et al. Metabolic adaptation to caloric restriction and subsequent refeeding: the Minnesota Starvation Experiment revisited. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(4):807-819.
24. McAllister MJ, Pigg BL, Renteria LI, Waldman HS. Time-restricted feeding improves markers of cardiometabolic health in physically active college-age men: a 4-week randomized pre-post pilot study. Nutr Res. 2020;75:32-43.
25. World Medical A. World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2191-2194.
26. Heavin G, Rodman N, Findley C. Curves Fitness & Weight Management Program. Curves International; 2008.
27. Kerksick CM, Roberts MD, Campbell BI, et al. Differential Impact of Calcium and Vitamin D on Body Composition Changes in Post-Menopausal Women Following a Restricted Energy Diet and Exercise Program. Nutrients. 2020;12(3).
28. Farris G, Wismann J, Farris R, et al. Exercise intensity and energy expenditure analysis of women participating in the Curves® exercise program. FASEB J. 2006;LB:93-94.
29. Kreider R, Parker A, Moreillon J, Rasmussen C, Greenwood M. Energy expenditure analysis of women participating in a computerized hydraulic circuit training program. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2008;22(6):A69-70.
30. La Bounty P, Wilborn C, Marcello B, et al. Analysis of exercise intensities of women using the Curves® hydraulic training equipment. FASEB J. 2006;LB:93.
31. Matarese LE. Indirect calorimetry: technical aspects. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1997;97(10 Suppl 2):S154-160.
32. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
33. Almada AL, Kreider RB, Ransom J, Rasmussen C. Comparison of the reliability of repeated whole body DEXA scans to repeated spine and hip scans. J Bone Miner Res. 1999;14:S369-S369.
34. Kerksick C, Thomas A, Campbell B, et al. Effects of a popular exercise and weight loss program on weight loss, body composition, energy expenditure and health in obese women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6(23).
35. Kreider R, Rasmussen C, Kerksick C, et al. A carbohydrate-restricted diet during resistance training promotes more favorable changes in body composition and markers of health in obese women with and without insulin resistance. Phys Sportsmed. 2011;39(2):27-40.
36. Kreider RB, Serra M, Beavers KM, et al. A structured diet and exercise program promotes favorable changes in weight loss, body composition, and weight maintenance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2011;111(6):828-843.
37. Page P. Beyond statistical significance: clinical interpretation of rehabilitation research literature. International journal of sports physical therapy. 2014;9(5):726-736.
38. Moro T, Tinsley G, Bianco A, et al. Effects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained males. J Transl Med. 2016;14(1):290.
39. Chin SH, Kahathuduwa CN, Binks M. Physical activity and obesity: what we know and what we need to know. Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 2016;17(12):1226-1244.
40. Zubrzycki A, Cierpka-Kmiec K, Kmiec Z, Wronska A. The role of low-calorie diets and intermittent fasting in the treatment of obesity and type-2 diabetes. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2018;69(5).
41. Anton SD, Lee SA, Donahoo WT, et al. The Effects of Time Restricted Feeding on Overweight, Older Adults: A Pilot Study. Nutrients. 2019;11(7).
42. Antoni R, Johnston KL, Steele C, Carter D, Robertson MD, Capehorn MS. Efficacy of an intermittent energy restriction diet in a primary care setting. Eur J Nutr. 2019.
43. Headland ML, Clifton PM, Keogh JB. Effect of intermittent compared to continuous energy restriction on weight loss and weight maintenance after 12 months in healthy overweight or obese adults. Int J Obes (Lond). 2019;43(10):2028-2036.
44. Hutchison AT, Liu B, Wood RE, et al. Effects of Intermittent Versus Continuous Energy Intakes on Insulin Sensitivity and Metabolic Risk in Women with Overweight. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2019;27(1):50-58.
45. Pinto AM, Bordoli C, Buckner LP, et al. Intermittent energy restriction is comparable to continuous energy restriction for cardiometabolic health in adults with central obesity: A randomized controlled trial; the Met-IER study. Clin Nutr. 2019.
46. Clifton PM, Keogh JB, Noakes M. Long-term effects of a high-protein weight-loss diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(1):23-29.
47. Carter ND, Khan KM, McKay HA, et al. Community-based exercise program reduces risk factors for falls in 65- to 75-year-old women with osteoporosis: randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2002;167(9):997-1004.
48. Mateo-Gallego R, Marco-Benedi V, Perez-Calahorra S, et al. Energy-restricted, high-protein diets more effectively impact cardiometabolic profile in overweight and obese women than lower-protein diets. Clin Nutr. 2017;36(2):371-379.
49. Hunter GR, McCarthy JP, Bamman MM. Effects of resistance training on older adults. Sports Med. 2004;34(5):329-348.