Therapeutic Apheresis, Immunosuppression and Human Monoclonal Anti-bodies in Hematologic diseases most with im-munologic origin
Main Article Content
Abstract
Therapeutic plasma exchange with hollow fiber modules has been used in different severe diseases for more than 45 years. Updated information on molecular biology and immunology of different diseases, the authors discuss in relation to the rationale for apheresis therapy and its place in combination with other modern therapies such as immunosuppressive drugs, cytotoxic agents, and/or human monoclonal antibodies, With the introduction of novel and effective biologic agents, therapeutic apheresis is indicated in severe cases, such as in rapid progression despite immunosuppressive therapy and/or biologic agents. In mild forms of immunologic diseases, treatment with immunosuppressive therapies and/or biologic agents seems to be sufficient. The prognosis of hematologic diseases has improved in recent years, due in part to very aggressive therapy schemes. For the hematologic diseases, especially diseases with an immunologic origin, such as various anemias, erythrocytosis, theombocytopenia, hyperleukocytosis and coagulation inhibitors that can be treated with therapeutic apheresis, the guidelines of the Apheresis Application Committee of the American Society for Apheresis are cited. Therapeutic apheresis has been shown to effectively remove the toxins, autoantibodies, and other substances from blood and lead to rapid clinical improvement. Therapeutic plasma exchange or immunoadsorption aimed at the causative antibodies can be used in diseases caused by antibodies or immune complexes. Adjuvant drug therapies are different for different diseases and are typically individualized in type, dose and duration of use. Therapeutic apheresis can safely be performed in all severe ill patients and is most combined with an immunosuppression therapy. Human monoclonal antibodies are more introduced in hematologic diseases in recent years.
Keywords:
Therapeutic Apheresis, therapeutic plasma exchange, immunoadsorption, extracorporeal photopheresis, human monoclonal antibodies, hematologic diseases
Article Details
How to Cite
BAMBAUER, Rolf; SCHIEL, Ralf; SALGADO, Octavio J..
Therapeutic Apheresis, Immunosuppression and Human Monoclonal Anti-bodies in Hematologic diseases most with im-munologic origin.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 10, n. 9, sep. 2022.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3147>. Date accessed: 26 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i9.3147.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1) Bambauer R, Latza R, Schiel R (Eds.). (2013). Therapeutic Plasma Exchange and Selective Plasma Separation Methods. Fundamental Technologies, Pathology and Clinical Results. 4rd Edition. Pabst Science Publishers, Lengerich.
2) Malchesky PS. (2001). Membrane process for plasma separation and plasma fractionation: Guideline Principles for Clinical Use. Ther Apher. 5: 270-282.
3) Hafer CC, Golla P, Gericke M et al. (2016). Membrane versus centrifuge-based therapeu-tic plasma exchange: a randomized prospec-tive crossover study. Int Urol Nephrol.48: 133-138.
4) Bambauer R, Latza R, Burgard D, Schiel R. (2016). Therapeutic Apheresis in Hematologic, Autoimmune and Dermatologic Diseases with Immunologic Origin. Ther Apher Dial. 20: 433-452.
5) Schwartz A, Padmanabhan A, Aqui N, et al. (2016). Guidelines on the use of Therapeutic Apheresis in Clinical Practice-Evidence-Based Approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis: The Seventh Special Issue. J Clin Apher. 31: 149-162.
6) Padmanabhan A, Connelly-Smith I, Aqui N. (2019). Guidelines on the use of Therapeutic Apheresis in Clinical Practice-Evidence-Based Approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis. J Clin Apher. 34: 171-354.
7) Bambauer R, Schiel Ralf, Lehmann B, Bambau-er C. (2012). Therapeutic apheresis, technical overview. ARPN J Sci Technol. 2: 399-422.
8) Davidson A, Diamond B. (2000). Autoimmune Diseases. N Engl J Med. 345: 340-350.
9) Bambauer R, Jutzler GA, Philippi H. (1988). Hemofiltration and plasmapheresis in prema-ture infants and newborns. Artif Org. 12: 20-26.
10) De Palo T, Giordano M, Bellantuono R, et al. (2000). Therapeutic apheresis in children: ex-perience in a pediatric dialysis center. Int J Artif Org. 23: 834-839.
11) Bambauer R, Schiel R. (2020). Therapeutic Apheresis in Pediatrics with Neurological and Hematological Diseases. J Clin Exp Immunol. 5(4): 154-172.
12) Filbey D, Hanson U, Wesström G. (1995). The prevalence of red cell antibodies in pregnan-cy correlated to the outcome of the newborn. A 12-year study in central Sweden. Acta Ob-stet Gynecol Scan. 74: 687-692.
13) Bing JI, Ping HE, Liu H. (2006). Clinical study off 44 cases of Rh-negative pregnant women. Chin J Health &Heredity, 4: 8.
14) Moise KJ. (2002). Management of rhesus allo-immunization in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 100: 600-611.
15) Mimura K, Endo M, Takahashi A, et al. (2020). Successful management of fetal hemolytic dis-ease due to strong anti-Rh7 with plasma ex-change and intrauterine transfusion in a wom-an with the D-phenotype. Int J Hematol. 111: 149-154.
16) Wind M, Gaasbeek GA, Oosten LEM et al. (2021). Therapeutic plasma exchange in pregnancy: A literature review. Eur J Obstet & Gynecol Reproduct Biol. 260: 29-36.
17) Zwiers C, van Kamp I, Lopriore E. (2017). Intrauterine transfusion and non-invasive treatment options for hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn – review on current man-agement and outcome. Exp Rev Hematol. 10: 337-344.
18) Ruperto-Ramos L, Garcia-Pérez D, Hernández-Maraver A, et al. (2021). A 3-Case Series of Autoimmune Haemoltic Anaemia and COVID-19. Is Plasma Exchange an Alternative? SN Compreh Clin Med. 3: 1420-1423.
19) Dhaliwal G, Cornelt PA, Tierney LM. (2004). Hemolytic anemia. Am Fam Physic.69: 2599.
20) Semple JW, Freedmann J. (2005). Autoim-mune pathogenesis and autoimmune haemo-lytic anemia. Semin Hematol. 42: 122-130.
21) Nagelkerke SQ, Bruggemann CW, den Haan JMM, et al. (2018). Red pulp macrophages in the human spleen are a distinct cell population with a unique expression of Fc-γ receptors. Blood Adv. 2: 941-953.
22) Berentsen S, Barcellini W. (2021). Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemias. N Engl J Med. 385: 1407-1419.
23) Berentsen S, Hill A, Hill QA, et al. (2019). Novel insights into the treatment of comple-ment-mediated hemolytic anemias: Ther Adv Hematol. 10: 2040620719873321.
24) Barcellini W, Gianotta JA, Fattizzo B. (2021). Are patients with autoimmune cytopenias at higher risk of COVID-19 pneumonia? The ex-perience of a reference center in Northern Ita-ly and review of the literature. Front Immunol. 609198.
25) Petz LD. (2001). Treatment of autoimmune haemolytic anemias. Curr Opin Hematol. 8: 411-416.
26) King KE, Ness PM. (2005). Treatment of auto-immune haemolytic anemias. Semin Hematol. 42: 131-136.
27) Röth A, Bommer M, Hüttmann A et al. (2018). Eculizumab in cold agglutinin disease (DEC-ADE): an open-label prospective, bi-centric, nonrandomized phase 2 trial. Blood Adv. 2: 2543-2549.
28) Hoffmann R, Benz EJJ, Schattil SJ. (2005). Haematology: basic Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Elsevier, Churchchill, Livingstone, Phila-delphia.
29) Ohene Frempong K. (2001). Indications for red cell transfusion in sickle cell disease. Semin Hematol. 38: 5-13.
30) Thurston GB, Henderson NM, Jeng M. (2004). Effects of erythrocytapheresis transfusion on the visoelasticity of sickle cell blood. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 30: 83-97.
31) Atiya S, Marar RI, Bobr A. (2021). Successful use of Plasma Exchange Preceding RBC Ex-change in Sickle Cell Disease Hyperhemolytic Crisis with hepatic Sequestration. A Csae re-port. Blood 138(1): 4279.
32) Siddiqui RS, Ferman DA, Shi PA. (2021). Fur-ther evidence for the benefit of therapeutic plasma exchange for acute multi-organ failure syndrome refractory to red cell exchange in sickle cell disease. J Clin Apher. 36(5): 777-779.
33) Tsitsikas DA, Hall R, Meenan J, et al. (2021). Successful treatment of acute sickle cell intra-hepatic cholestasis with therapeutic plasma exchange. eJHaem. 1-3, https://doi.org/10.1002/jha2.150.
34) Furstenau D, Peer CJ, Hughes TE, et al. (2021). Alemtuzumab clearance, lymphocyte count, and t-cell chimerism after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in sickle cell disease. J Huma Pharmacol Drug Ther. 42(1): 14-22.
35) Vannier E, Krause PJ. (2012). Human babesio-sis. N Engl Med. 366(25): 2397-2407.
36) Gray EB, Herwaldt BL. (2019). Babesiosis Surveillance – United States, 2011 – 215. MMWR Surveill Summ. 68(6): 1-11.
37) Rajapakse P, Bakirhan K. (2021). Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Associated with Human Babesiosis. J Hematol. 10(2): 41-45.
38) Bambauer R, Latza R, Schiel R. (2011). Thera-peutic apheresis in the treatment of hemolytic uremic syndrome due to pathophysiologic as-pect. Ther Apher Dial. 15: 10 – 19.
39) Zimmerhackl, LB, Verweyen H, Gerber A et al. (2002). Das hämolytisch-urämische Syndrom. Dtsch Ärztebl. 99: A197 – A203.
40) Bläker F, Altrooge H, Hellwege HH et al. (1978). Dialysebehandlung des schweren hämolytisch-urämischen Syndroms. Dtsch Med Wschr. 103: 1229 – 1233.
41) Spencer CD, Crane FM, Kumar JR et al. (1982). Treatment of postpartum haemolytic uremic syndrome with plasma exchange. JA-MA. 247: 2808 – 2809.
42) Gillor A, Roth B, Bulla M et al. (1986). Plasmapherese bei der Behandlung von Kindern mit hämolytisch-urämischen Nieren – Hochdruckkrankh. 15: 118 – 123.
43) Bambauer R, Jutzler GA, Jesberger HJ et al (1988). Therapeutischer Plasma-Austausch beim hämolytisch-urämischen Syndrom. Dtsch Med Wschr. 113: 1245 – 1249.
44) Dittrich E, Schmaldienst S, Derfler K. (2007). Plasmaaustausch und Immunadsorption. Wien Klin Wschr. 2: 39 – 54.
45) Kaplan AA. (2001). Therapeutic apheresis for cancer related uremic syndrome. Ther Apher. 4: 201 – 206.
46) Michael M, Elliot EJ, Ridley GF et al. (2009). Interventions for haemolytic uraemia syndrome and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Cochrane Database Sys Rev. 2009;v
47) O´Regan S, Blais N, Russo P et al. (1989). Hemolytic uremic syndrome: glomerular filtra-tion rate, 6 to 11 years later measured by 99mTc DTPA plasma slope clearance. Clin Nephrol. 32: 217 – 220.
48) Rasco DA, Webster DR, Sahl JW et al. (2011). Origins of the E. coli strain causing outbtreak of haemolytic-uremic syndrome in Germany. N Engl J Med. 365: 709 – 717.
49) Kielstein JT, Beutel G, Feig S et al. (2012). Best supportive care and therapeutic plasma exchange with or without eculizumab in Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli O104:H4 induced haemolytic uremic syndrome: an analysis of the German STEC-Hus registry. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 27(10): 1807 – 1815.
50) Dessypris EN. (2005). Rure red cell aplasia. In: Hoffmann R, Benz EJJ, Schattil SJ, et al. hema-tology: Basic principles and Practice. 4th ed. Elsevier, Churchchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, 429.
51) Verholen F, Stadler M, Helg C, Chanlandon Y. (2004). Resistant pure red cell aplasia allo-genic stem cell transplantation with major ABO mismatch treated by escalating dose donor leukocyte infusion. Eur J Haematol. 73:441-446.
52) Cao J, Pei R, Thang P, et al. (2021). Successful haploidentical transplantation using plasma exchange and post-transplantation cyclophos-phamide for severe aplastic anemia patients with human leukocyte antigen donor-specific antibodies. Ann Hematol. 2021; 100: 2381-2385.
53) Drew MJ. (2003). Therapeutic plasma ex-change in hematologic diseases and dyspro-teinemias. In: Mc Leod BC, Price TH, Weinstein R (eds.). Apheresis: Principles and practice. 2nd Edition. AABB Press, Bethesda, 345.
54) Choi SJ, Kim HS, Kim Y, et al. (2019). Efficacy of three consecutive therapeutic plasma ex-changes in major ABO-incompatible hemato-poietic stem cell transplantation. J Clin Apher. 34(4): 367-372.
55) Kanold J, Messina C, Halle P. (2005). Update on extracorporeal photo-chemotherapy for graft-versus-host disease treatment. Bone Mar-row Transplant. 35: S69-S71.
56) Greinix HT, Knobler RM, Morell N. (2006). The effect of intensified extracorporeal photo-chemotherapy on long-term survival in patients with severe acute graft-versus-host disease. Haematologica 1: 405-408.
57) Thevenet U, Daguenet E, Beszera, SM, et al. (2021). Infectious risks in patients treated with extracorporeal photopheresis for graft-versus-host disease: A retrospective cohort study. J Clin Apher. 37: 106-116.
58) Maas-Bauer K, Kiote.-Schmidt C, Bertz H, et al. (2021). Ruxilitinib-ECP combination treatment for refractory severe chronic graft-versus-host disease. Bone Marrow Transplant. 56: 909-916.
59) Kaurinovic M, Delli K, Jonk AME. (2022). Ef-fect of ruxolitinib on the oral mucosa of pa-tients with steroid-refractory chronic Graft-versus-Host disease and oral involvement. Clin Oral Investig. 26: 4209-4216.
60) Lorberboym M, Rahimi-Levene N, Lipszyc H, et al. (2005). Analysis of red cell mass and plas-ma volume in patients with polycythemia. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 129: 89-91.
61) Tefferi A. (2008). Essential thrombocytopenia, polycythemia Vera, and myelofibrosis: current management and the prospect of target ther-apy. Am J Hematol. 83: 491-497.
62) Tefferi A, Spivak JL. (2005). Polycythemia Vera: scientific advances and current practice. Semin Hematol. 42: 206-220.
63) Lippert E, Boissinot M, Kralovics R, et al. (2006). The JAK2-V617F mutations are fre-quently present at diagnosis in patients with essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia Vera. Blood 108: 1865-1867.
64) Scott LM, Tong W, Levine RL, et al. (2007). JAK exon 12 mutations in polycythemia Vera and idiopathic erythrocytosis. N Engl J Med. 365: 459-468.
65) Hodges VM, Rainey S, Lappin TR, et al. (2007). Pathophysiology of anemia and eryth-rocytosis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 64: 139-158.
66) Adams BD, Baher R, Lopez JA, Spencer S. (2009). Myeloproliferative disorders and the hyperviscosity syndrome. Emerg Med Clin N Am. 27: 459-476.
67) Finazi G, Gregg XT, Barbui T, Prchal JT. (2006). Idiopathic erythrocytosis and other nonclonal polycythemia. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 19: 471-482.
68) Mc Mullin MF, Bareford D, Campbell P. (2005). Guidelines for the diagnosis investiga-tion and management of polycythemia / erythrocytosis. Br J Haematol. 130: 174-195.
69) Salinas IP, Flores VR, Montales MA, et al. (2020). Therapeutic erythrocytapheresis: Ex-perience in patients with polycythemia Vera and secondary erythrocytosis. Medicina Clini-ca. 154: 16-19.
70) Mc Millan R. (2000). The pathogenesis of chronic immune (idiopathic) thrombocytopenia purpura. Semin Hematol. 37: 5-9.
71) Bambauer R, Bambauer C, Schiel R. (2012). Therapeutic apheresis (TA) on thrombocytope-nia. In: Maysaa El Sayed Zaki (ed.) Thrombo-cytopenia. Nova Science Publishers, 197-215.
72) Moake JL. Moake JL. (1992). Von Willebrand Factor (vWF) abnormalities in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura TTP and the hemo-lytic uremic syndrome (HUS). Transfus Sci. 13: 27-31.
73) Yontovian R, Niklinski W, B Silver B et al. (2004). Rituximab for chronic recurring throm-botic thrombocytopenic purpura: a case report and review of the literature. Br J Haematol. 124: 787-795.
74) Bobbio-Pallavicini E, Porta C, Fornasari PM et al. (1992). Thrombotic thrombocytopenic pur-pura (TTP): retrospective study of 84 patients and therapeutic prospects. Transfus Sci. 13: 39-44.
75) Outschoorn UM, Ferber A. (2006). Outcome in treatment of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura with splenectomy: A retrospective co-hort study. Am J Hematol. 81: 895-900.
76) Pan Z, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Hao W. (2022). The Efficacy and Safety of Plasma Exchange in the treatment of Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura. Develop Optimiz Algorith Smart Healthc. Art. ID 3519937. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3519937.
77) Kiefel V. (2012). Platelet antibodies and di-agnosis of immune-mediated thrombocytope-nia. Int Ther Transfus Med. 209-217.
78) Aster RH. (1999). Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia. An overview of pathogen-esis. Sem Hematol. 36(1 Suppl 1):2-6.
79) George N, Woodson RD, Kiss E et al. (2006). Rutiximab therapy for thrombotic thrombocy-topenic purpura: A proposed study of the Transfusion Medicine/Hemotasis Clinical Trials Network with a systemic review of rituximab therapy for immune-mediated disorders. J Clin Apher. 21:49-56.
80) Bambauer R, Schiel R. (2021). Therapeutic Apheresis and Immunosuppression in Immuno-logic Diseases. A Review and Own Observa-tions. Clin Immunol Res. 5(2): 1-36.
81) Gloor JM, Winters JL, Cornell LD et al. (2010). Baseline donor-specific antibody levels and outcomes in positive crossmatch kidney trans-plantation. Am J Transplant.10: 582-589.
82) Willamso LM, Hackett G, Palmer CR. (1998). The natural history of alloimmunization to the platelet-specific antigen HPA-1a. Blood 92: 2280-2287.
83) Guidelines for the investigation and manage-ment of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in adults, children and pregnancy. (2003). Br H Haematol. 120: 574-596.
84) Cinnes DB, Blanchette VS. (2002). Immune thrombocytopenic purpura. N Engl J Med. 346: 995-1008.
85) Scaradavon, A, Bussel JB. (1998). Clinical experiences with anti-D in the treatment of id-iopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Sem He-matol. 35: 52-57.
86) Rock G, Weber V, Stegmayr B. (2021). Ther-apeutic plasma exchange (TPE) as a possible rescue therapy in severe vaccine-induced im-mune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. Transfus Apher Sci. 60(4): 103174.
87) Buetler VA, Agbariah N, Schild DP, et al. (2022). Immune-Mediated Thrombotic Throm-bocytopenic Purpura Following m RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccine BNT162b2: A Case Report and Mini-Review of the Literature. Front med (Lausanne). 9: 890661.
88) Hammami E, Lamarque M, Aujoulat O, et al. (2022). Acquired Thrombotic Thrombocytope-nic Purpura after BNT162b2 COVID-19 Vac-cine: Case Report and Literature Review. Lab Med. Imac 016, https://doi.org/10.1093/labmed
89) Snyder HW, Cochran SK, Balint JP. (1992). Experience with protein A Immunoadsorption in the treatment-resistant adult immune throm-bocytopenic purpura. Blood; 79: 2237-2245.
90) Silvermann GJ, Goodyear CS, Siegel DL. (2005) On the mechanism of staphylococcal protein A immunoadsorption. Transfusion 45: 274-280.
91) George N, Woodson RD, Kiss E, et al. (2006). Rituximab therapy for thrombotic thrombocy-topenic purpura: A proposed study of the Transfusion Medicine/Hemotasis Clinical trials network with a systemic review of rituximab therapy for immune mediated disorders. J Clin Apher. 21: 49-56.
92) Gloor JM, Winters JL, Cornell LD, et al. (2010). Baseline donor specific antibody lev-els and outcomes in positive crossmatch kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant.10: 582-589
93) Spiva DA, Cecere FA. (1984). Post-transfusion pulmonary morbidity in TTP patients may be prevented by use of microaggregate filters. Plasma Ther Transfus Technol. 5:111.
94) Gonzales CE, Pengetze YM. (2005). Post transfusion purpura. Curr Hematol Rep. 4:154-159.
95) Greist A. (2002). The role of blood component in essential and reactive thrombosis. Ther Apher. 6: 36-44.
96) Elliot MA, A Tefferi A. (2005). Thrombosis and Haemorrhage in polycythemia Vera and es-sential thrombocythemia. Br J Haematol. 128: 275-290.
97) Prakash S, Hans Rkha, Sharma RR et al. (2017). Therapeutic Thrombocytapheresis for Symptomatic Thrombocytosis in Hemato-Oncology Patients. Ther Apher Dial. 22(1): 93-95.
98) Das SS, Biswas RN, Sen S, Chakrapani A. (2022). Therapeutic thrombocytapheresis as an important tool in the management of symp-tomatic hyper-thrombocytosis: A single-institution experience from India. Glob J Trans-fus Med. 7(1): 7-11.
99) Tan D, Hang W, Goh YT. (2005). Therapeutic leukapheresis in hyperleukocyte leukaemia’s – the experience of a tertiary institution in Sin-gapore. Ann Acad Med Singap.34: 229-234.
100) Zhang D, Zhu Y, Jin Y, et al. (2021). Leu-kapheresis and Hyperleukocytosis, Past and Future. Int J Gen Med. 14: 3457-3467.
101) Cöcer M, Kurtoglu E. (2021). Effect of prophylatic leukapheresis on early mortality and overall survival in acute leukemia patients with hyperleukocytosis. Ther Apher Dial. 25(5): 697-703.
102) Rosales M, Roncon S, Mariz M, et al. (2022). Therapeutic Leukapheresis: Experience of a single Oncologic Centre. Transfus Med Hemotther. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520933.
103) Porcu P, Farag S, Marcucci G et al. (2002). Leukocytoreduction for acute leuke-mia. Ther Apher. 6: 15-23.
104) Lowe EJ, Pui CH, Hancock ML et al. (2005). Early complications in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia presenting with hyperleukocytosis. Pediatr Blood Canc 45: 10-15.
105) Korkmaz S. (2018). The management of hyperleukocytosis in 2017: Do we still need leukapheresis. Transf Apher Sci. 57(1): 4-7.
106) Weng J, Chen M, Fang D, et al. (2021). Therapeutic Plasma Exchange protects Pa-tients with Sepsis-Associated Disseminated In-travascular Coagulation by Improving Endo-thelial Function. Clin Appl Thomb Hemost. https://doi.org/10.1177/10760296211053313.
107) Levi M, de Jong E, Meijers E. (2002). The diagnosis of disseminated intravascular coagu-lation. Blood Rev.2002 16: 217.
108) Stegmayr BG, Berseus O, Björsell-Östling E et al. (1990). Plasma exchange in patients with severe consumption coagulopathy and acute renal failure. Transfus Sci. 11:271.
109) Abe T, Sasaki A, Ueda T, et al. (2017). Complement-mediated thrombotic microangi-opathy secondary to sepsis-induced dissemi-nated intravascular coagulation successfully treated with eculizumab. A case report. Med (Baltimore) 96(6): e6056.
110) Sharathkumar A, Lilicrap D, Blancette VS et al. (2004). Intensive exposure to factor VIII is a risk factor for inhibitor development in mild hemophilia. J Thromb Haemost. 1:1228-1236.
111) Fedorova ZD, Litmanovich KI, Egora LV et al. (1987) Autologous blood transfusion and plasmapheresis in the complex treatment of patients with hemophilia. Gemantol Trans-fuziol. 32:47.
112) Freiburghaus C, Berntrop E, Gunnarson M et al. (1999). Tolerance induction using the Malmö treatment model 1995. Haemophilia 5(1): 32-39.
113) Pereira ME, Bocksrucker C, Kremer Hovinga JA. (2021). Immunoadsorption for the Treatment of Acquired Hemophilia: New Ob-servational Data, Systematic Review, and Me-ta-Analysis. Transfus Med Tev. 35(2): 125-134.
114) Tribl B, Knöbl P, Derfler K et al. (1995). Rapid elimination of a high-titer spontaneous factor V antibody extracorporeal antibody-bases immunoadsorption and immunosuppres-sion. Ann Hematol. 71: 199-203.
115) Mc Millan R. (2000). The pathogenesis of chronic immune (idiopathic) thrombocytopenia purpura. Sem Hematol. 37: 5-9.
116) Wool GD, Chapel D, Treml A, Miller JL. (2017). Therapeutic plasma exchange as a part of multimodal treatment of acquired he-mophilia in a patient with concurrent acute in-tracerebral bleed and pulmonary embolism. Transf. 57: 1827-1836.
117) Friedmann J, Bewernadette GM. (2004). Immunoadsorption of factor VIII inhibitors. Curr Opin Hematol. 11: 327.
118) Young G, Callahan M, Dunn A, et al. (2018). Emicizumab for hemophilia A with fac-tor VII inhibitors. Exp Rev Hematol. 11: 835-846.
DOI: 10.1080/17474086.2018.1531701.
119) Lollar P. (2004). Polygenic antibodies to coagulation factors. Part one: Factor VIII and factor IX. J Thrombos Haemost. 2: 1082-1095.
120) Yares SG, Webb CB, Sarode R, et al. (2022). Utilization of emicizumab in acquired hemophilia A: A case report. Transfus Apher Sci. 103457 (in press).
121) Knörle P, Derfler K, Korninger L et al. (1995). Elimination of acquired factor VIII an-tibodies by extracoproeal antibody-based immunoadsorption (Ig-Therasorb). Thromb He-most. 74: 1025.
122) Huguet HC, Lasne D, Rothschild C et al. (2004). Extracorporeal adsorption of anti-factor VIII alloantibodies on randomly func-tionalized polystyrene resins. Thromb Haemost. 91: 259-266.
123) Valbonesi M, Montani F, Mosconi L et al. (1984). Plasmapheresis and cytotoxic drugs for mixed cryoglobulinemia. Haematologia 17: 341-351.
124) Vijay A, Gertz MA. (2007). Waldenström macroglobulinemia. Blood 109: 5096-5103.
125) Leung N, Gertz MA, Zeldenrust SR et al. (2008). Improvement of cast nephropathy with plasma exchange depends on the diagnosis and on reduction of serum free light chains. Kid Int. 73: 1282-1288.
126) Galacki DM. (1997). An overview of ther-apeutic apheresis in pediatrics. J Clin Apher. 12. 1-3.
127) Kasprisin DO. (1989). Techniques, indica-tions, and toxicity of therapeutic Hemapheresis in children. J Clin Apher. 5: 21-24.
128) Shelat SG. (2010). Practical considera-tions for planning a therapeutic apheresis pro-cedure. Am J Med. 123: 777-784.
129) Steffanuti C, Lanfi A, Di Giacomo S et al. (2004). Therapeutic apheresis in low weight patients: technical feasibility, tolerance, com-pliance, and risks. Transfus Apher. 31: 3-10.
130) Wright E, Dillon MJ, Tullus K. (2007). Childhood vasculitis and plasma exchange. Eur J Pediatr.166: 145-151.
131) Malchesky PS. (2015). Therapeutic Apher-esis: Why? Ther Apher Dial.19:417-426
2) Malchesky PS. (2001). Membrane process for plasma separation and plasma fractionation: Guideline Principles for Clinical Use. Ther Apher. 5: 270-282.
3) Hafer CC, Golla P, Gericke M et al. (2016). Membrane versus centrifuge-based therapeu-tic plasma exchange: a randomized prospec-tive crossover study. Int Urol Nephrol.48: 133-138.
4) Bambauer R, Latza R, Burgard D, Schiel R. (2016). Therapeutic Apheresis in Hematologic, Autoimmune and Dermatologic Diseases with Immunologic Origin. Ther Apher Dial. 20: 433-452.
5) Schwartz A, Padmanabhan A, Aqui N, et al. (2016). Guidelines on the use of Therapeutic Apheresis in Clinical Practice-Evidence-Based Approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis: The Seventh Special Issue. J Clin Apher. 31: 149-162.
6) Padmanabhan A, Connelly-Smith I, Aqui N. (2019). Guidelines on the use of Therapeutic Apheresis in Clinical Practice-Evidence-Based Approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis. J Clin Apher. 34: 171-354.
7) Bambauer R, Schiel Ralf, Lehmann B, Bambau-er C. (2012). Therapeutic apheresis, technical overview. ARPN J Sci Technol. 2: 399-422.
8) Davidson A, Diamond B. (2000). Autoimmune Diseases. N Engl J Med. 345: 340-350.
9) Bambauer R, Jutzler GA, Philippi H. (1988). Hemofiltration and plasmapheresis in prema-ture infants and newborns. Artif Org. 12: 20-26.
10) De Palo T, Giordano M, Bellantuono R, et al. (2000). Therapeutic apheresis in children: ex-perience in a pediatric dialysis center. Int J Artif Org. 23: 834-839.
11) Bambauer R, Schiel R. (2020). Therapeutic Apheresis in Pediatrics with Neurological and Hematological Diseases. J Clin Exp Immunol. 5(4): 154-172.
12) Filbey D, Hanson U, Wesström G. (1995). The prevalence of red cell antibodies in pregnan-cy correlated to the outcome of the newborn. A 12-year study in central Sweden. Acta Ob-stet Gynecol Scan. 74: 687-692.
13) Bing JI, Ping HE, Liu H. (2006). Clinical study off 44 cases of Rh-negative pregnant women. Chin J Health &Heredity, 4: 8.
14) Moise KJ. (2002). Management of rhesus allo-immunization in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 100: 600-611.
15) Mimura K, Endo M, Takahashi A, et al. (2020). Successful management of fetal hemolytic dis-ease due to strong anti-Rh7 with plasma ex-change and intrauterine transfusion in a wom-an with the D-phenotype. Int J Hematol. 111: 149-154.
16) Wind M, Gaasbeek GA, Oosten LEM et al. (2021). Therapeutic plasma exchange in pregnancy: A literature review. Eur J Obstet & Gynecol Reproduct Biol. 260: 29-36.
17) Zwiers C, van Kamp I, Lopriore E. (2017). Intrauterine transfusion and non-invasive treatment options for hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn – review on current man-agement and outcome. Exp Rev Hematol. 10: 337-344.
18) Ruperto-Ramos L, Garcia-Pérez D, Hernández-Maraver A, et al. (2021). A 3-Case Series of Autoimmune Haemoltic Anaemia and COVID-19. Is Plasma Exchange an Alternative? SN Compreh Clin Med. 3: 1420-1423.
19) Dhaliwal G, Cornelt PA, Tierney LM. (2004). Hemolytic anemia. Am Fam Physic.69: 2599.
20) Semple JW, Freedmann J. (2005). Autoim-mune pathogenesis and autoimmune haemo-lytic anemia. Semin Hematol. 42: 122-130.
21) Nagelkerke SQ, Bruggemann CW, den Haan JMM, et al. (2018). Red pulp macrophages in the human spleen are a distinct cell population with a unique expression of Fc-γ receptors. Blood Adv. 2: 941-953.
22) Berentsen S, Barcellini W. (2021). Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemias. N Engl J Med. 385: 1407-1419.
23) Berentsen S, Hill A, Hill QA, et al. (2019). Novel insights into the treatment of comple-ment-mediated hemolytic anemias: Ther Adv Hematol. 10: 2040620719873321.
24) Barcellini W, Gianotta JA, Fattizzo B. (2021). Are patients with autoimmune cytopenias at higher risk of COVID-19 pneumonia? The ex-perience of a reference center in Northern Ita-ly and review of the literature. Front Immunol. 609198.
25) Petz LD. (2001). Treatment of autoimmune haemolytic anemias. Curr Opin Hematol. 8: 411-416.
26) King KE, Ness PM. (2005). Treatment of auto-immune haemolytic anemias. Semin Hematol. 42: 131-136.
27) Röth A, Bommer M, Hüttmann A et al. (2018). Eculizumab in cold agglutinin disease (DEC-ADE): an open-label prospective, bi-centric, nonrandomized phase 2 trial. Blood Adv. 2: 2543-2549.
28) Hoffmann R, Benz EJJ, Schattil SJ. (2005). Haematology: basic Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Elsevier, Churchchill, Livingstone, Phila-delphia.
29) Ohene Frempong K. (2001). Indications for red cell transfusion in sickle cell disease. Semin Hematol. 38: 5-13.
30) Thurston GB, Henderson NM, Jeng M. (2004). Effects of erythrocytapheresis transfusion on the visoelasticity of sickle cell blood. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 30: 83-97.
31) Atiya S, Marar RI, Bobr A. (2021). Successful use of Plasma Exchange Preceding RBC Ex-change in Sickle Cell Disease Hyperhemolytic Crisis with hepatic Sequestration. A Csae re-port. Blood 138(1): 4279.
32) Siddiqui RS, Ferman DA, Shi PA. (2021). Fur-ther evidence for the benefit of therapeutic plasma exchange for acute multi-organ failure syndrome refractory to red cell exchange in sickle cell disease. J Clin Apher. 36(5): 777-779.
33) Tsitsikas DA, Hall R, Meenan J, et al. (2021). Successful treatment of acute sickle cell intra-hepatic cholestasis with therapeutic plasma exchange. eJHaem. 1-3, https://doi.org/10.1002/jha2.150.
34) Furstenau D, Peer CJ, Hughes TE, et al. (2021). Alemtuzumab clearance, lymphocyte count, and t-cell chimerism after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in sickle cell disease. J Huma Pharmacol Drug Ther. 42(1): 14-22.
35) Vannier E, Krause PJ. (2012). Human babesio-sis. N Engl Med. 366(25): 2397-2407.
36) Gray EB, Herwaldt BL. (2019). Babesiosis Surveillance – United States, 2011 – 215. MMWR Surveill Summ. 68(6): 1-11.
37) Rajapakse P, Bakirhan K. (2021). Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Associated with Human Babesiosis. J Hematol. 10(2): 41-45.
38) Bambauer R, Latza R, Schiel R. (2011). Thera-peutic apheresis in the treatment of hemolytic uremic syndrome due to pathophysiologic as-pect. Ther Apher Dial. 15: 10 – 19.
39) Zimmerhackl, LB, Verweyen H, Gerber A et al. (2002). Das hämolytisch-urämische Syndrom. Dtsch Ärztebl. 99: A197 – A203.
40) Bläker F, Altrooge H, Hellwege HH et al. (1978). Dialysebehandlung des schweren hämolytisch-urämischen Syndroms. Dtsch Med Wschr. 103: 1229 – 1233.
41) Spencer CD, Crane FM, Kumar JR et al. (1982). Treatment of postpartum haemolytic uremic syndrome with plasma exchange. JA-MA. 247: 2808 – 2809.
42) Gillor A, Roth B, Bulla M et al. (1986). Plasmapherese bei der Behandlung von Kindern mit hämolytisch-urämischen Nieren – Hochdruckkrankh. 15: 118 – 123.
43) Bambauer R, Jutzler GA, Jesberger HJ et al (1988). Therapeutischer Plasma-Austausch beim hämolytisch-urämischen Syndrom. Dtsch Med Wschr. 113: 1245 – 1249.
44) Dittrich E, Schmaldienst S, Derfler K. (2007). Plasmaaustausch und Immunadsorption. Wien Klin Wschr. 2: 39 – 54.
45) Kaplan AA. (2001). Therapeutic apheresis for cancer related uremic syndrome. Ther Apher. 4: 201 – 206.
46) Michael M, Elliot EJ, Ridley GF et al. (2009). Interventions for haemolytic uraemia syndrome and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Cochrane Database Sys Rev. 2009;v
47) O´Regan S, Blais N, Russo P et al. (1989). Hemolytic uremic syndrome: glomerular filtra-tion rate, 6 to 11 years later measured by 99mTc DTPA plasma slope clearance. Clin Nephrol. 32: 217 – 220.
48) Rasco DA, Webster DR, Sahl JW et al. (2011). Origins of the E. coli strain causing outbtreak of haemolytic-uremic syndrome in Germany. N Engl J Med. 365: 709 – 717.
49) Kielstein JT, Beutel G, Feig S et al. (2012). Best supportive care and therapeutic plasma exchange with or without eculizumab in Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli O104:H4 induced haemolytic uremic syndrome: an analysis of the German STEC-Hus registry. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 27(10): 1807 – 1815.
50) Dessypris EN. (2005). Rure red cell aplasia. In: Hoffmann R, Benz EJJ, Schattil SJ, et al. hema-tology: Basic principles and Practice. 4th ed. Elsevier, Churchchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, 429.
51) Verholen F, Stadler M, Helg C, Chanlandon Y. (2004). Resistant pure red cell aplasia allo-genic stem cell transplantation with major ABO mismatch treated by escalating dose donor leukocyte infusion. Eur J Haematol. 73:441-446.
52) Cao J, Pei R, Thang P, et al. (2021). Successful haploidentical transplantation using plasma exchange and post-transplantation cyclophos-phamide for severe aplastic anemia patients with human leukocyte antigen donor-specific antibodies. Ann Hematol. 2021; 100: 2381-2385.
53) Drew MJ. (2003). Therapeutic plasma ex-change in hematologic diseases and dyspro-teinemias. In: Mc Leod BC, Price TH, Weinstein R (eds.). Apheresis: Principles and practice. 2nd Edition. AABB Press, Bethesda, 345.
54) Choi SJ, Kim HS, Kim Y, et al. (2019). Efficacy of three consecutive therapeutic plasma ex-changes in major ABO-incompatible hemato-poietic stem cell transplantation. J Clin Apher. 34(4): 367-372.
55) Kanold J, Messina C, Halle P. (2005). Update on extracorporeal photo-chemotherapy for graft-versus-host disease treatment. Bone Mar-row Transplant. 35: S69-S71.
56) Greinix HT, Knobler RM, Morell N. (2006). The effect of intensified extracorporeal photo-chemotherapy on long-term survival in patients with severe acute graft-versus-host disease. Haematologica 1: 405-408.
57) Thevenet U, Daguenet E, Beszera, SM, et al. (2021). Infectious risks in patients treated with extracorporeal photopheresis for graft-versus-host disease: A retrospective cohort study. J Clin Apher. 37: 106-116.
58) Maas-Bauer K, Kiote.-Schmidt C, Bertz H, et al. (2021). Ruxilitinib-ECP combination treatment for refractory severe chronic graft-versus-host disease. Bone Marrow Transplant. 56: 909-916.
59) Kaurinovic M, Delli K, Jonk AME. (2022). Ef-fect of ruxolitinib on the oral mucosa of pa-tients with steroid-refractory chronic Graft-versus-Host disease and oral involvement. Clin Oral Investig. 26: 4209-4216.
60) Lorberboym M, Rahimi-Levene N, Lipszyc H, et al. (2005). Analysis of red cell mass and plas-ma volume in patients with polycythemia. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 129: 89-91.
61) Tefferi A. (2008). Essential thrombocytopenia, polycythemia Vera, and myelofibrosis: current management and the prospect of target ther-apy. Am J Hematol. 83: 491-497.
62) Tefferi A, Spivak JL. (2005). Polycythemia Vera: scientific advances and current practice. Semin Hematol. 42: 206-220.
63) Lippert E, Boissinot M, Kralovics R, et al. (2006). The JAK2-V617F mutations are fre-quently present at diagnosis in patients with essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia Vera. Blood 108: 1865-1867.
64) Scott LM, Tong W, Levine RL, et al. (2007). JAK exon 12 mutations in polycythemia Vera and idiopathic erythrocytosis. N Engl J Med. 365: 459-468.
65) Hodges VM, Rainey S, Lappin TR, et al. (2007). Pathophysiology of anemia and eryth-rocytosis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 64: 139-158.
66) Adams BD, Baher R, Lopez JA, Spencer S. (2009). Myeloproliferative disorders and the hyperviscosity syndrome. Emerg Med Clin N Am. 27: 459-476.
67) Finazi G, Gregg XT, Barbui T, Prchal JT. (2006). Idiopathic erythrocytosis and other nonclonal polycythemia. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 19: 471-482.
68) Mc Mullin MF, Bareford D, Campbell P. (2005). Guidelines for the diagnosis investiga-tion and management of polycythemia / erythrocytosis. Br J Haematol. 130: 174-195.
69) Salinas IP, Flores VR, Montales MA, et al. (2020). Therapeutic erythrocytapheresis: Ex-perience in patients with polycythemia Vera and secondary erythrocytosis. Medicina Clini-ca. 154: 16-19.
70) Mc Millan R. (2000). The pathogenesis of chronic immune (idiopathic) thrombocytopenia purpura. Semin Hematol. 37: 5-9.
71) Bambauer R, Bambauer C, Schiel R. (2012). Therapeutic apheresis (TA) on thrombocytope-nia. In: Maysaa El Sayed Zaki (ed.) Thrombo-cytopenia. Nova Science Publishers, 197-215.
72) Moake JL. Moake JL. (1992). Von Willebrand Factor (vWF) abnormalities in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura TTP and the hemo-lytic uremic syndrome (HUS). Transfus Sci. 13: 27-31.
73) Yontovian R, Niklinski W, B Silver B et al. (2004). Rituximab for chronic recurring throm-botic thrombocytopenic purpura: a case report and review of the literature. Br J Haematol. 124: 787-795.
74) Bobbio-Pallavicini E, Porta C, Fornasari PM et al. (1992). Thrombotic thrombocytopenic pur-pura (TTP): retrospective study of 84 patients and therapeutic prospects. Transfus Sci. 13: 39-44.
75) Outschoorn UM, Ferber A. (2006). Outcome in treatment of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura with splenectomy: A retrospective co-hort study. Am J Hematol. 81: 895-900.
76) Pan Z, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Hao W. (2022). The Efficacy and Safety of Plasma Exchange in the treatment of Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura. Develop Optimiz Algorith Smart Healthc. Art. ID 3519937. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3519937.
77) Kiefel V. (2012). Platelet antibodies and di-agnosis of immune-mediated thrombocytope-nia. Int Ther Transfus Med. 209-217.
78) Aster RH. (1999). Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia. An overview of pathogen-esis. Sem Hematol. 36(1 Suppl 1):2-6.
79) George N, Woodson RD, Kiss E et al. (2006). Rutiximab therapy for thrombotic thrombocy-topenic purpura: A proposed study of the Transfusion Medicine/Hemotasis Clinical Trials Network with a systemic review of rituximab therapy for immune-mediated disorders. J Clin Apher. 21:49-56.
80) Bambauer R, Schiel R. (2021). Therapeutic Apheresis and Immunosuppression in Immuno-logic Diseases. A Review and Own Observa-tions. Clin Immunol Res. 5(2): 1-36.
81) Gloor JM, Winters JL, Cornell LD et al. (2010). Baseline donor-specific antibody levels and outcomes in positive crossmatch kidney trans-plantation. Am J Transplant.10: 582-589.
82) Willamso LM, Hackett G, Palmer CR. (1998). The natural history of alloimmunization to the platelet-specific antigen HPA-1a. Blood 92: 2280-2287.
83) Guidelines for the investigation and manage-ment of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in adults, children and pregnancy. (2003). Br H Haematol. 120: 574-596.
84) Cinnes DB, Blanchette VS. (2002). Immune thrombocytopenic purpura. N Engl J Med. 346: 995-1008.
85) Scaradavon, A, Bussel JB. (1998). Clinical experiences with anti-D in the treatment of id-iopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Sem He-matol. 35: 52-57.
86) Rock G, Weber V, Stegmayr B. (2021). Ther-apeutic plasma exchange (TPE) as a possible rescue therapy in severe vaccine-induced im-mune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. Transfus Apher Sci. 60(4): 103174.
87) Buetler VA, Agbariah N, Schild DP, et al. (2022). Immune-Mediated Thrombotic Throm-bocytopenic Purpura Following m RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccine BNT162b2: A Case Report and Mini-Review of the Literature. Front med (Lausanne). 9: 890661.
88) Hammami E, Lamarque M, Aujoulat O, et al. (2022). Acquired Thrombotic Thrombocytope-nic Purpura after BNT162b2 COVID-19 Vac-cine: Case Report and Literature Review. Lab Med. Imac 016, https://doi.org/10.1093/labmed
89) Snyder HW, Cochran SK, Balint JP. (1992). Experience with protein A Immunoadsorption in the treatment-resistant adult immune throm-bocytopenic purpura. Blood; 79: 2237-2245.
90) Silvermann GJ, Goodyear CS, Siegel DL. (2005) On the mechanism of staphylococcal protein A immunoadsorption. Transfusion 45: 274-280.
91) George N, Woodson RD, Kiss E, et al. (2006). Rituximab therapy for thrombotic thrombocy-topenic purpura: A proposed study of the Transfusion Medicine/Hemotasis Clinical trials network with a systemic review of rituximab therapy for immune mediated disorders. J Clin Apher. 21: 49-56.
92) Gloor JM, Winters JL, Cornell LD, et al. (2010). Baseline donor specific antibody lev-els and outcomes in positive crossmatch kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant.10: 582-589
93) Spiva DA, Cecere FA. (1984). Post-transfusion pulmonary morbidity in TTP patients may be prevented by use of microaggregate filters. Plasma Ther Transfus Technol. 5:111.
94) Gonzales CE, Pengetze YM. (2005). Post transfusion purpura. Curr Hematol Rep. 4:154-159.
95) Greist A. (2002). The role of blood component in essential and reactive thrombosis. Ther Apher. 6: 36-44.
96) Elliot MA, A Tefferi A. (2005). Thrombosis and Haemorrhage in polycythemia Vera and es-sential thrombocythemia. Br J Haematol. 128: 275-290.
97) Prakash S, Hans Rkha, Sharma RR et al. (2017). Therapeutic Thrombocytapheresis for Symptomatic Thrombocytosis in Hemato-Oncology Patients. Ther Apher Dial. 22(1): 93-95.
98) Das SS, Biswas RN, Sen S, Chakrapani A. (2022). Therapeutic thrombocytapheresis as an important tool in the management of symp-tomatic hyper-thrombocytosis: A single-institution experience from India. Glob J Trans-fus Med. 7(1): 7-11.
99) Tan D, Hang W, Goh YT. (2005). Therapeutic leukapheresis in hyperleukocyte leukaemia’s – the experience of a tertiary institution in Sin-gapore. Ann Acad Med Singap.34: 229-234.
100) Zhang D, Zhu Y, Jin Y, et al. (2021). Leu-kapheresis and Hyperleukocytosis, Past and Future. Int J Gen Med. 14: 3457-3467.
101) Cöcer M, Kurtoglu E. (2021). Effect of prophylatic leukapheresis on early mortality and overall survival in acute leukemia patients with hyperleukocytosis. Ther Apher Dial. 25(5): 697-703.
102) Rosales M, Roncon S, Mariz M, et al. (2022). Therapeutic Leukapheresis: Experience of a single Oncologic Centre. Transfus Med Hemotther. https://doi.org/10.1159/000520933.
103) Porcu P, Farag S, Marcucci G et al. (2002). Leukocytoreduction for acute leuke-mia. Ther Apher. 6: 15-23.
104) Lowe EJ, Pui CH, Hancock ML et al. (2005). Early complications in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia presenting with hyperleukocytosis. Pediatr Blood Canc 45: 10-15.
105) Korkmaz S. (2018). The management of hyperleukocytosis in 2017: Do we still need leukapheresis. Transf Apher Sci. 57(1): 4-7.
106) Weng J, Chen M, Fang D, et al. (2021). Therapeutic Plasma Exchange protects Pa-tients with Sepsis-Associated Disseminated In-travascular Coagulation by Improving Endo-thelial Function. Clin Appl Thomb Hemost. https://doi.org/10.1177/10760296211053313.
107) Levi M, de Jong E, Meijers E. (2002). The diagnosis of disseminated intravascular coagu-lation. Blood Rev.2002 16: 217.
108) Stegmayr BG, Berseus O, Björsell-Östling E et al. (1990). Plasma exchange in patients with severe consumption coagulopathy and acute renal failure. Transfus Sci. 11:271.
109) Abe T, Sasaki A, Ueda T, et al. (2017). Complement-mediated thrombotic microangi-opathy secondary to sepsis-induced dissemi-nated intravascular coagulation successfully treated with eculizumab. A case report. Med (Baltimore) 96(6): e6056.
110) Sharathkumar A, Lilicrap D, Blancette VS et al. (2004). Intensive exposure to factor VIII is a risk factor for inhibitor development in mild hemophilia. J Thromb Haemost. 1:1228-1236.
111) Fedorova ZD, Litmanovich KI, Egora LV et al. (1987) Autologous blood transfusion and plasmapheresis in the complex treatment of patients with hemophilia. Gemantol Trans-fuziol. 32:47.
112) Freiburghaus C, Berntrop E, Gunnarson M et al. (1999). Tolerance induction using the Malmö treatment model 1995. Haemophilia 5(1): 32-39.
113) Pereira ME, Bocksrucker C, Kremer Hovinga JA. (2021). Immunoadsorption for the Treatment of Acquired Hemophilia: New Ob-servational Data, Systematic Review, and Me-ta-Analysis. Transfus Med Tev. 35(2): 125-134.
114) Tribl B, Knöbl P, Derfler K et al. (1995). Rapid elimination of a high-titer spontaneous factor V antibody extracorporeal antibody-bases immunoadsorption and immunosuppres-sion. Ann Hematol. 71: 199-203.
115) Mc Millan R. (2000). The pathogenesis of chronic immune (idiopathic) thrombocytopenia purpura. Sem Hematol. 37: 5-9.
116) Wool GD, Chapel D, Treml A, Miller JL. (2017). Therapeutic plasma exchange as a part of multimodal treatment of acquired he-mophilia in a patient with concurrent acute in-tracerebral bleed and pulmonary embolism. Transf. 57: 1827-1836.
117) Friedmann J, Bewernadette GM. (2004). Immunoadsorption of factor VIII inhibitors. Curr Opin Hematol. 11: 327.
118) Young G, Callahan M, Dunn A, et al. (2018). Emicizumab for hemophilia A with fac-tor VII inhibitors. Exp Rev Hematol. 11: 835-846.
DOI: 10.1080/17474086.2018.1531701.
119) Lollar P. (2004). Polygenic antibodies to coagulation factors. Part one: Factor VIII and factor IX. J Thrombos Haemost. 2: 1082-1095.
120) Yares SG, Webb CB, Sarode R, et al. (2022). Utilization of emicizumab in acquired hemophilia A: A case report. Transfus Apher Sci. 103457 (in press).
121) Knörle P, Derfler K, Korninger L et al. (1995). Elimination of acquired factor VIII an-tibodies by extracoproeal antibody-based immunoadsorption (Ig-Therasorb). Thromb He-most. 74: 1025.
122) Huguet HC, Lasne D, Rothschild C et al. (2004). Extracorporeal adsorption of anti-factor VIII alloantibodies on randomly func-tionalized polystyrene resins. Thromb Haemost. 91: 259-266.
123) Valbonesi M, Montani F, Mosconi L et al. (1984). Plasmapheresis and cytotoxic drugs for mixed cryoglobulinemia. Haematologia 17: 341-351.
124) Vijay A, Gertz MA. (2007). Waldenström macroglobulinemia. Blood 109: 5096-5103.
125) Leung N, Gertz MA, Zeldenrust SR et al. (2008). Improvement of cast nephropathy with plasma exchange depends on the diagnosis and on reduction of serum free light chains. Kid Int. 73: 1282-1288.
126) Galacki DM. (1997). An overview of ther-apeutic apheresis in pediatrics. J Clin Apher. 12. 1-3.
127) Kasprisin DO. (1989). Techniques, indica-tions, and toxicity of therapeutic Hemapheresis in children. J Clin Apher. 5: 21-24.
128) Shelat SG. (2010). Practical considera-tions for planning a therapeutic apheresis pro-cedure. Am J Med. 123: 777-784.
129) Steffanuti C, Lanfi A, Di Giacomo S et al. (2004). Therapeutic apheresis in low weight patients: technical feasibility, tolerance, com-pliance, and risks. Transfus Apher. 31: 3-10.
130) Wright E, Dillon MJ, Tullus K. (2007). Childhood vasculitis and plasma exchange. Eur J Pediatr.166: 145-151.
131) Malchesky PS. (2015). Therapeutic Apher-esis: Why? Ther Apher Dial.19:417-426