Novel Policies are Required to Reduce Pediatric Lead Exposure from Legacy Lead (Pb) in Soil and Air
Main Article Content
Abstract
In 1925, a U.S. conference on lead (Pb) additives tacitly approved their use in petrol. Over five-decades an exponential increase of air lead occurred from commercial marketing of leaded petrol and the sale of automobiles. The ability to measure microgram quantities of Pb was unavailable to medical researchers until the late 1960s and early 1970s. The clinical application of advanced analytical technology demonstrated that pediatric lead exposure was excessive. Beginning in the mid-1970s, actions were taken to curtail Pb additive and decreases of pediatric lead poisoning coincided with decreased air Pb from leaded petrol use. Exogenous Pb exhaust particles are absorbed through inhalation and ingestion routes of exposure. Exogenous Pb is metabolically mistaken for calcium and stored endogenously in bones, teeth, and other tissues. Endogenous Pb has intergenerational effects. All organs, most notably the nervous system, are affected. Clinical studies indicate that there is no safe level of Pb exposure. A worldwide ban on leaded petrol was achieved on August 30, 2021. Banning leaded petrol corresponded with marked decreases in lead exposure. However, exogenous Pb dust persists in soil as a legacy from the era of leaded petrol. Soil Pb is remobilized into the air. Because of traffic congestion and Pb dust emissions, population centers are of particular concern. An exceedingly strong association exists between soil Pb and blood Pb indicating that at the community-scale Pb dust mitigation is necessary to decrease pediatric Pb exposure. Urban soil Pb and blood Pb studies indicate the risk of excessive exposure from legacy Pb dust in communities is highest where the median soil Pb is ≥ 50 mg/kg. The objective of this article is to demonstrate the practical application of an advanced hand-held analytical instrument to map Pb in children’s playgrounds adjacent to a major traffic corridor. We illustrate soil Pb mapping and then consider mitigation procedures for primary prevention of legacy Pb. Mapping soil Pb provides an informed basis for advising parents and encouraging community mitigation responses for reducing pediatric Pb exposure from legacy Pb dust. The soil health-plant health-animal/human health signaling nexus is compromised by legacy Pb. For the medical pediatric community, the existence of legacy lead requires new policies to address intervention of the soil-air-blood linkages of the Pb exposure pathway.
Article Details
How to Cite
MIELKE, Howard W.; PALTSEVA, Anna; GONZALES, Christopher R..
Novel Policies are Required to Reduce Pediatric Lead Exposure from Legacy Lead (Pb) in Soil and Air.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 10, n. 10, oct. 2022.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3260>. Date accessed: 26 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i10.3260.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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21. Mielke, H. W., Gonzales, C., Powell, E., & Mielke Jr, P. W. (2005). Changes of multiple metal accumulation (MMA) in New Orleans soil: Preliminary evaluation of differences between survey I (1992) and survey II (2000). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2(2), 308-313.
22. Mielke, H. W., Gonzales, C. R., Smith, M. K., & Mielke, P. W. (2000). Quantities and associations of lead, zinc, cadmium, manganese, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and copper in fresh Mississippi delta alluvium and New Orleans alluvial soils. Science of the Total Environment, 246(2-3), 249-259.
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30. Mielke, H.W., Reagan, P.L. Soil Is an Important Pathway of Human Lead Exposure Environ Health Perspect 1998, 106 (Suppl 1):217-229.
31. Laidlaw, M. A., Mielke, H. W., Filippelli, G. M., Johnson, D. L., & Gonzales, C. R. (2005). Seasonality and children’s blood lead levels: developing a predictive model using climatic variables and blood lead data from Indianapolis, Indiana, Syracuse, New York, and New Orleans, Louisiana (USA). Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(6), 793-800.
32. Zahran, S.; Laidlaw, M.A.S.; McElmurry, S.P.; Filippelli, G.M.; Taylor, M. Linking Source and Effect: Resuspended Soil Lead, Air Lead, and Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Detroit, Michigan. Environmental Science & Technology 2013, 47, 2839–2845, https://doi.org:10.1021/es303854c.
33. Resongles et al. (2021). Strong evidence for the continued contribution of lead deposited during the 20th century to the atmospheric environment in London of today. PNAS https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2102791118.
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39. Paulson, J.A.; Brown, M.J. The C.D.C. blood lead reference value for children: Time for a change. Environ. Health 2019, 18, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-019-0457-7.
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2. Rees, N., & Fuller, R. (2020). The toxic truth: children’s exposure to lead pollution undermines a generation of future potential. UNICEF.
3. Ericson, B., Hu, H., Nash, E., Ferraro, G., Sinitsky, J., & Taylor, M. P. (2021). Blood lead levels in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(3), 145-153.
4. Proceedings of a Conference to Determine Whether or Not There is a Public Health Question in the Manufacture, Distribution, or Use of Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline; United State Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. Surgeon General H.S. Cumming, Presiding. Public Health Bulletin No. 158, August 1925; Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, U.S.A., 1925.
5. Henderson, Y. In: Proceedings of a Conference to Determine Whether or Not There is a Public Health Question in the Manufacture, Distribution, or Use of Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline; United State Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. Surgeon General H.S. Cumming, Presiding. Public Health Bulletin No. 158, August 1925; Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, U.S.A., 1925.
6. Kovarik, W. Ethyl-leaded Gasoline: How a Classic Occupational Disease Became an International Public Health Disaster. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 2005, 11, 384–397. https://doi.org/10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.384.
7. Landrigan, P. J. (2002). The worldwide problem of lead in petrol. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 80, 768-768.
8. Patterson, C.C. An Alternative Perspective—Lead Pollution in the Human Environment: Origin, Extent, and Significance; National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, U.S.A., 1980.
9. Hrg, S. (1984). AIRBORNE LEAD REDUCTION ACT OF 1984 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31909.14568
10. Mielke, Howard W.; Gonzales, Christopher R.; Powell, Eric T. Curtailing lead aerosols: Effects of primary lead prevention on soil lead, pediatric exposures, and community health. Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 10, oct. 2021. ISSN 2375-1924. Available at:
11. Mielke, H.W.; Gonzales, C.R.; Powell, E.T.; Egendorf, S.P. Lead in Air, Soil, and Blood: Pb Poisoning in a Changing World. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9500. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159500.
12. Jung, C. C., Chou, C. C. K., Huang, Y. T., Chang, S. Y., Lee, C. T., Lin, C. Y., ... & Chang, S. C. (2022). Isotopic signatures and source apportionment of Pb in ambient PM2. 5. Scientific reports, 12(1), 1-11.
13. Pirkle, J.L., Brody, D.J., Gunter, E.W., Kramer, R.A., Paschal, D.C., Flegal, K.M., Matte, T.D. The decline in blood lead levels in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). JAMA 1994, 272, 284–291
14. Cabrera, Y. Leaded Gasoline is Finally Gone-But its Toxic Legacy Lingers. August 31, 2021. https://grist.org/regulation/leaded-gasoline-lead-poisoning-united-nations/ (accessed on September 13, 2022).
15. Parsons, P.J.; McIntosh, K.G. Human exposure to lead and new evidence of adverse health effects: Implications for analytical measurements. Powder Diffr. 2010, 25, 175–181. https://doi.org/10.1154/1.3402340.
16. Sayre, J.W.; Charney, E.; Vostal, J.; Pless, I.B. House and Hand Dust As a Potential Source of Childhood Lead Exposure. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1974, 127, 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1974.02110210017002.
17. Mielke HW, Anderson JC, Berry KJ, Mielke PW, Chaney RL, Leech M. Lead concentrations in inner-city soils as a factor in the child lead problem. Am J Public Health. 1983;73(12):1366-1369. doi:10.2105/ajph.73.12.1366
18. Mielke, H. W., Gonzales, C. R., Powell, E. T., Laidlaw, M. A., Berry, K. J., Mielke Jr, P. W., & Egendorf, S. P. (2019). The concurrent decline of soil lead and children’s blood lead in New Orleans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(44), 22058-22064.
19. Gonzales, C.R.; Paltseva, A.A.; Bell, T.; Powell, E.T.; Mielke, H.W. Agreement R of four measurement methods on Pb contaminated soils from the small city of St. John’s NL, Canada. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9863. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189863
20. The New Orleans Lafitte Greenway https://www.tpl.org/our-work/lafitte-greenway.
21. Mielke, H. W., Gonzales, C., Powell, E., & Mielke Jr, P. W. (2005). Changes of multiple metal accumulation (MMA) in New Orleans soil: Preliminary evaluation of differences between survey I (1992) and survey II (2000). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2(2), 308-313.
22. Mielke, H. W., Gonzales, C. R., Smith, M. K., & Mielke, P. W. (2000). Quantities and associations of lead, zinc, cadmium, manganese, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and copper in fresh Mississippi delta alluvium and New Orleans alluvial soils. Science of the Total Environment, 246(2-3), 249-259.
23. Thermo Scientific NITON XL3t 900 Analyzer User's Guide Version 6.5, Pages 97-98, no publication date given.
24. Cohen, M.A., Ryan, P.B. (1989) Observations Less than the Analytical Limit of Detection: A New Approach, JAPCA, 39:3, 328-329, https://doi.org/10.1080/08940630.1989.10466534
25. Postma M, Goedhart J (2019) PlotsOfData—A web app for visualizing data together with their summaries. PLoS Biol 17(3): e3000202. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000202
26. Shiny Apps https://huygens.science.uva.nl/
27. Gottesfeld P, 2022: Lead Industry Influence in the 21st Century: An Old Playbook for a “Modern Metal”. American Journal of Public Health 112, S723_S729, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306960
28. Jacobs DE, Mielke H, Pavur N. The high cost of improper removal of lead-based paint from housing: a case report. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Feb;111(2):185-6. https://doi.org:10.1289/ehp.5761; PMID: 12573903; PMCID: PMC1241348.
29. Mielke HW, Gonzales CR, Ottesen RT, Langedal M, Jartun M, et al. (2019) Primary Health Care Consequences of Cultural Differences between New Orleans, Louisiana, USA and Oslo, Norway: Lead Contamination at Children’s Play Areas. J Family Med Prim Care Open Acc 3: 140. https://DOI.org/10.29011/2688-7460.100040.
30. Mielke, H.W., Reagan, P.L. Soil Is an Important Pathway of Human Lead Exposure Environ Health Perspect 1998, 106 (Suppl 1):217-229.
31. Laidlaw, M. A., Mielke, H. W., Filippelli, G. M., Johnson, D. L., & Gonzales, C. R. (2005). Seasonality and children’s blood lead levels: developing a predictive model using climatic variables and blood lead data from Indianapolis, Indiana, Syracuse, New York, and New Orleans, Louisiana (USA). Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(6), 793-800.
32. Zahran, S.; Laidlaw, M.A.S.; McElmurry, S.P.; Filippelli, G.M.; Taylor, M. Linking Source and Effect: Resuspended Soil Lead, Air Lead, and Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Detroit, Michigan. Environmental Science & Technology 2013, 47, 2839–2845, https://doi.org:10.1021/es303854c.
33. Resongles et al. (2021). Strong evidence for the continued contribution of lead deposited during the 20th century to the atmospheric environment in London of today. PNAS https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2102791118.
34. Jung, C. C., Chou, C. C. K., Huang, Y. T., Chang, S. Y., Lee, C. T., Lin, C. Y., ... & Chang, S. C. (2022). Isotopic signatures and source apportionment of Pb in ambient PM2. 5. Scientific reports, 12(1), 1-11.
35. Cecil, K. M., Brubaker, C. J., Adler, C. M., Dietrich, K. N., Altaye, M., Egelhoff, J. C., ... & Lanphear, B. P. (2008). Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure. PLoS medicine, 5(5), e112. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050112.
36. Schwaba, T.; Bleidorn, W.; Hopwood, C.J.; Gebauer, J.E.; Rentfrow, P.J.; Potter, J.; Gosling, S.D. The impact of childhood lead exposure on adult personality: Evidence from the United States, Europe, and a large-scale natural experiment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021, 118, 29. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020104118.
37. Oh, S.-E.; Kim, G.B.; Hwang, S.H.; Ha, M.; Lee, K.-M. Longitudinal Trends of Blood Lead Levels before and after Leaded Gasoline Regulation in Korea. Environmental Health and Toxicology 2017, 32, e2017019, https://doi:10.5620/eht.e2017019.
38. Petit, D.; Véron, A.; Flament, P.; Deboudt, K.; Poirier, A. Review of Pollutant Lead Decline in Urban Air and Human Blood: A Case Study from Northwestern Europe. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2015, 347, 247–256, https://doi:10.1016/j.crte.2015.02.004.
39. Paulson, J.A.; Brown, M.J. The C.D.C. blood lead reference value for children: Time for a change. Environ. Health 2019, 18, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-019-0457-7.
40. Attina, T.M.; Trasande, L. Economic Costs of Childhood Lead Exposure in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Environmental Health Perspectives 2013, 121, 1097–1102, https://doi:10.1289/ehp.1206424.
41. Mielke HW, McLachlan JA. Air, water, soil and environmental signaling. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2020 Jan;50(1):100739. doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2019.100739. Epub 2020 Jan 28. PMID: 32001174.2020.
42. Montgomery DR and Bikle A. (2022). What Your Food Ate: How To Heal Our Land and Reclaim Our Health. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. NYC NY. Pp 380.
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