Coping to What End?: Core Belief Disruption and Posttraumatic Growth During COVID-19
Main Article Content
Whitney Dominick, PhD
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8267-1526
Taylor Elam
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3519-0337
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8267-1526
Taylor Elam
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3519-0337
Abstract
The pandemic caused by the 2019 Novel Coronavirus disrupted life globally, leading to a disruption of core beliefs, the need for coping strategies, and the possibility of posttraumatic growth, the positive psychological change that may occur after a stressful or traumatic event. This study followed 201 participants from the United States (Mage: 35.39, SD: 14.60) at four time points over the first year of the pandemic. Core belief disruption, the use of coping strategies, and posttraumatic growth were assessed in March 2020 (T1), April 2020 (T2), September 2020 (T3), and April 2021 (T4). From T1 to T4, core belief disruption significantly increased, and the use of most coping strategies decreased, but overall posttraumatic growth did not change. However, posttraumatic growth at all four time points was predicted by higher levels of core belief disruption, although which coping strategies predicted core belief disruption and posttraumatic growth varied based on the time of assessment and whether analyses were cross-sectional or longitudinal. Overall, the avoidant coping strategy of substance use was most frequently associated with core belief disruption, followed by the emotion-focused strategies of acceptance, self-blame, and religion. Interestingly, each problem-focused coping strategy was predictive of core belief disruption at one time point cross-sectionally, but no problem-focused coping strategy predicted core belief disruption longitudinally. Alternatively, the problem-focused coping strategies of active coping and positive reframing were the most frequent predictors of posttraumatic growth, while 50% of avoidant and emotion-focused coping strategies, such as self-distraction, denial, emotional support, and venting, were not associated with posttraumatic growth at any time point. These results indicate that participants were flexible with the use of coping strategies based on the circumstances at the time. Additionally, the coping strategies that primarily predict core belief disruption differ from the coping strategies that primarily predict posttraumatic growth. These findings highlight the coping strategies that should be avoided since they may contribute primarily to core belief disruption and encourage the use of coping strategies that may promote psychological growth following traumatic events.
Keywords:
core belief disruption, coping, posttraumatic growth, COVID-19
Article Details
How to Cite
DOMINICK, Whitney; ELAM, Taylor.
Coping to What End?: Core Belief Disruption and Posttraumatic Growth During COVID-19.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 1, jan. 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3518>. Date accessed: 26 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i1.3518.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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25. Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress‐related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00815.x
26. Wild, N. D., & Paivio, S. C. (2004). Psychological adjustment, coping, and emotion regulation as predictors of posttraumatic growth. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 8(4), 97-122. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v08n04_05
27. Wolchik, S. A., Coxe, S., Tein, J. Y., Sandler, I. N., & Ayers, T. S. (2009). Six-year longitudinal predictors of posttraumatic growth in parentally bereaved adolescents and young adults. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 58(2), 107-128. https://doi.org/10.2190/OM.58.2.b
28. Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2008). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss Trauma, 14(5), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020902724271
29. Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797-816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.797
30. Brooks, M., Graham-Kevan, N., Robinson, S., & Lowe, M. (2019). Trauma characteristics and posttraumatic growth: The mediating role of avoidance coping, intrusive thoughts, and social support. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(2), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000372
31. Stump, M. J., & Smith, J. E. (2008). The relationship between posttraumatic growth and substance use in homeless women with histories of traumatic experience. American Journal on Addictions, 17(6), 478-487. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490802409017
32. Ullman, S. E. (2014). Correlates of posttraumatic growth in adult sexual assault victims. Traumatology, 20(3), 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099402
33. Ye, Z., Chen, L., & Lin, D. (2018). The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and posttraumatic growth among HIV-infected men who have sex with men in Beijing, China: The mediating roles of coping strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01787
34. Kalaitzaki, A., & Rovithis, M. (2021). Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious posttraumatic growth in healthcare workers during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Greece: The role of resilience and coping strategies. Psychiatriki 32(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.22365/jpsych.2021.001
35. London, M. J., Mercer, M. C., & Lilly, M. M. (2020). Considering the impact of early trauma on coping and pathology to predict posttraumatic growth among 9-1-1 Telecommunicators. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(21-22), 4709-4731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517716942
36. Cohen, O., & Katz, M. (2015). Grief and growth of bereaved siblings as related to attachment style and flexibility. Death Studies, 39(3), 158-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2014.923069
37. Kunz, S., Joseph, S., Geyh, S., & Peter, C. (2018). Coping and posttraumatic growth: A longitudinal comparison of two alternative views. Rehabilitation Psychology, 63(2), 240.
38. Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Kilmer, R. P., Gil-Rivas, V., Vishnevsky, T, & Danhauer, S. C. (2010). The Core Beliefs Inventory: A brief measure of disruption in the assumptive world. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23(1), 19-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800802573013
39. Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Taku, K., Senol-Durak, E., & Calhoun, L. G. (2017). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: A Revision Integrating Existential and Spiritual Change. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22155
40. Gray, D. E. (2006). Coping over time: The parents of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 970-976. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00933.x
41. Tomberg, T., Toomela, A., Ennok, M, & Tikk, A. (2007). Changes in coping strategies, social support, optimism and health-related quality of life following traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal study. Brain Injury, 21(5), 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050701311737
42. Culver, J. L., Arena, P., Antoni, M, H., & Carver, C. S. (2002). Coping and distress among women under treatment for early stage breast cancer: Comparing African Americans, Hispanics, and Non-Hispanic Whites. Psycho-Oncology, 11(6), 495-504. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.615
43. Hamama‐Raz, Y., Pat‐Horenczyk, R., Roziner, I., Perry, S., & Stemmer, S. M. (2019). Can posttraumatic growth after breast cancer promote positive coping?—A cross‐lagged study. Psycho‐oncology, 28(4), 767-774. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.5017
44. Tedeschi, R. G., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Taku, K., & Calhoun, L. G. (2017). Posttraumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. NY and London: Routledge
2. Sohrabi, C., Alsafi, Z., O'neill, N., Khan, M., Kerwan, A., Al-Jabir, A., Iosifidis, C., & Agha, R. (2020). World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). International Journal of Surgery, 76, 71-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034
3. Carver, Charles S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol's too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92-100. https://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6
4. Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(3), 207–239. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.65.3.207.20173
5. Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 216–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216
6. Bellizzi, K. M., & Blank, T. O. (2006). Predicting posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 25(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.25.1.47
7. Hulbert-Williams, N., Neal, R., Morrison, V., Hood, K., & Wilkinson, C. (2012). Anxiety, depression and quality of life after cancer diagnosis: What psychosocial variables best predict how patients adjust? Psycho-Oncology, 21(8), 857–867. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1980
8. Krägeloh, C. U. (2011). A systematic review of studies using the Brief COPE: Religious coping in factor analyses. Religions, 2(3), 216–246. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2030216
9. Wang, A. W., Cheng, C., Chang, C., Chen, D., Chen, S., Shieh, V., Lo, A., & Hsu, W. (2018). Does the factor structure of the brief COPE fit different types of traumatic events? A test of measurement invariance. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 34(3), 162-173. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000321
10. Taku, K., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2015). Core beliefs shaken by an earthquake correlate with posttraumatic growth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(6), 563. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000054
11. Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2006). “the foundations of posttraumatic growth: an expanded framework,” in Handbook of Posttraumatic Growth: Research & Practice, eds L. G. Calhoun, and R. G. Tedeschi (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers), 3–23.
12. Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma., Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455-471. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02103658
13. Dominick, W. (2022). Changes in posttraumatic growth, core belief disruption, and social support over the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 6389. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1019273
14. Chasson, M., Taubman - Ben-Ari, O., & Abu-Sharkia, S. (2022). Posttraumatic growth in the wake of COVID-19 among Jewish and Arab pregnant women in Israel. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 14(8), 1324–1332. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001189
15. pan Cui, P., pan Wang, P., Wang, K., Ping, Z., Wang, P., & Chen, C. (2021). Post-traumatic growth and influencing factors among frontline nurses fighting against COVID-19. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 78(2), 129-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2020-106540
16. Sun, W., Chen, W. T., Zhang, Q., Ma, S., Huang, F., Zhang, L., & Lu, H. (2021). Post-traumatic growth experiences among COVID-19 confirmed cases in China: A qualitative study. Clinical Nursing Research, 30(7), 1079-1087. https://doi.org/10.1177/10547738211016951
17. Ramos, C., & Leal, I. P. (2013). Posttraumatic growth in the aftermath of trauma: A literature review about related factors and application contexts. Psychology, Community & Health, 2, 43-54. http:/doi.org/10400.12/2482
18. Gerber, M. M., Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2011). The unique contributions of positive and negative religious coping to posttraumatic growth and PTSD. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3(4), 298. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023016
19. Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 17(1), 11-21. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOTS.0000014671.27856.7e
20. Cordova, M. J., Cunningham, L. L., Carlson, C. R., & Andrykowski, M. A. (2001). Posttraumatic growth following breast cancer: a controlled comparison study. Health Psychology, 20(3), 176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.20.3.176
21. Karanci, A. N., & Erkam, A. (2007). Variables related to stress‐related growth among Turkish breast cancer patients. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 23(5), 315-322. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1154
22. Lelorain, S., Bonnaud-Antignac, A., & Florin, A. (2010). Long term posttraumatic growth after breast cancer: prevalence, predictors and relationships with psychological health. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 17(1), 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880-009-9183-6
23. Scrignaro, M., Barni, S., & Magrin, M. E. (2011). The combined contribution of social support and coping strategies in predicting post‐traumatic growth: A longitudinal study on cancer patients. Psycho‐oncology, 20(8), 823-831. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1782
24. Thombre, A., Sherman, A. C., & Simonton, S. (2010). Religious coping and posttraumatic growth among family caregivers of cancer patients in India. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 28(2), 173-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347330903570537
25. Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress‐related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00815.x
26. Wild, N. D., & Paivio, S. C. (2004). Psychological adjustment, coping, and emotion regulation as predictors of posttraumatic growth. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 8(4), 97-122. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v08n04_05
27. Wolchik, S. A., Coxe, S., Tein, J. Y., Sandler, I. N., & Ayers, T. S. (2009). Six-year longitudinal predictors of posttraumatic growth in parentally bereaved adolescents and young adults. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 58(2), 107-128. https://doi.org/10.2190/OM.58.2.b
28. Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2008). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss Trauma, 14(5), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020902724271
29. Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797-816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.797
30. Brooks, M., Graham-Kevan, N., Robinson, S., & Lowe, M. (2019). Trauma characteristics and posttraumatic growth: The mediating role of avoidance coping, intrusive thoughts, and social support. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(2), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000372
31. Stump, M. J., & Smith, J. E. (2008). The relationship between posttraumatic growth and substance use in homeless women with histories of traumatic experience. American Journal on Addictions, 17(6), 478-487. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490802409017
32. Ullman, S. E. (2014). Correlates of posttraumatic growth in adult sexual assault victims. Traumatology, 20(3), 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099402
33. Ye, Z., Chen, L., & Lin, D. (2018). The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and posttraumatic growth among HIV-infected men who have sex with men in Beijing, China: The mediating roles of coping strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01787
34. Kalaitzaki, A., & Rovithis, M. (2021). Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious posttraumatic growth in healthcare workers during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Greece: The role of resilience and coping strategies. Psychiatriki 32(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.22365/jpsych.2021.001
35. London, M. J., Mercer, M. C., & Lilly, M. M. (2020). Considering the impact of early trauma on coping and pathology to predict posttraumatic growth among 9-1-1 Telecommunicators. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(21-22), 4709-4731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517716942
36. Cohen, O., & Katz, M. (2015). Grief and growth of bereaved siblings as related to attachment style and flexibility. Death Studies, 39(3), 158-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2014.923069
37. Kunz, S., Joseph, S., Geyh, S., & Peter, C. (2018). Coping and posttraumatic growth: A longitudinal comparison of two alternative views. Rehabilitation Psychology, 63(2), 240.
38. Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Kilmer, R. P., Gil-Rivas, V., Vishnevsky, T, & Danhauer, S. C. (2010). The Core Beliefs Inventory: A brief measure of disruption in the assumptive world. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23(1), 19-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800802573013
39. Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Taku, K., Senol-Durak, E., & Calhoun, L. G. (2017). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: A Revision Integrating Existential and Spiritual Change. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22155
40. Gray, D. E. (2006). Coping over time: The parents of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 970-976. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00933.x
41. Tomberg, T., Toomela, A., Ennok, M, & Tikk, A. (2007). Changes in coping strategies, social support, optimism and health-related quality of life following traumatic brain injury: A longitudinal study. Brain Injury, 21(5), 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050701311737
42. Culver, J. L., Arena, P., Antoni, M, H., & Carver, C. S. (2002). Coping and distress among women under treatment for early stage breast cancer: Comparing African Americans, Hispanics, and Non-Hispanic Whites. Psycho-Oncology, 11(6), 495-504. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.615
43. Hamama‐Raz, Y., Pat‐Horenczyk, R., Roziner, I., Perry, S., & Stemmer, S. M. (2019). Can posttraumatic growth after breast cancer promote positive coping?—A cross‐lagged study. Psycho‐oncology, 28(4), 767-774. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.5017
44. Tedeschi, R. G., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Taku, K., & Calhoun, L. G. (2017). Posttraumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. NY and London: Routledge