Are gastrointestinal signals the principal guides to human appetite and energy balance?
Main Article Content
Abstract
In view of the exponential rise of global obesity in the past three quarters of the century, it is useful to examine what is driving this change and what approaches can curb it. The chief drivers of weight gain are, on one hand our misunderstanding of the mechanisms controlling energy balance, and, on the other, reliance on current, potentially misleading conflicting scientific opinions and government policies regarding the controls of human appetite. This review outlines the evidence that: (1) there is no direct bioenergetic feedback from energy metabolism or energy stores to the brain mechanisms guiding feeding and energy expenditure, (2) human appetite is controlled by signals originating from an empty or full stomach, food palatability and opportunities to eat as well by the rate of food absorption, that (3) humans bear a genetic burden of having high ability and capacity to store fat and mechanisms that curb body- mass and fat loss, (4) humans are motivated to overconsume while maintaining low energy expenditure, and (5) commercial interests of food businesses marketing highly palatable foods, and wide-spread mechanization of living tasks and urban design reduce the need for physical work and movement. The non-pharmacological and non-surgical solutions to obesity involve an understanding of human genetic impediments and environmental obstacles to maintaining healthy weight, coupled with deliberate corrective or preventive behaviors, such as understanding and using gastrointestinal tract signals that provide sufficient, albeit subtle, cues for sensible food intake, and using daily weight monitoring and activity tracking devices to record and motivate healthy levels of physical activity.
Keywords:
gastrointestinal signals, human appetite, energy balance, principal guides to human appetite
Article Details
How to Cite
BORER, Katarina T..
Are gastrointestinal signals the principal guides to human appetite and energy balance?.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 1, jan. 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3548>. Date accessed: 03 dec. 2023.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i1.3548.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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3. Obesity and overweight fact sheet, World Health Organization. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight. (Accessed December 22,2022)
4. Fryar C, Carroll MD, Afful J. Prevalence of overweight, obesity, and severe obesity among adults aged 20 and over: United States,1960–1962 through 2017–2018; NCHS Health E-Stats; U.S. National Center for Health Statistics: Hyattsville, MD, USA, 2020.
5. Kawai T, Autieri MV, Scalia R. Adipose tissue inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2021; 320: C375-C391.
6. Kachur S, Lavie CJ, de Schutter A, Milani RV, Ventura HO. Obesity and cardiovascular diseases. Minerva Med. 2017; 108: 212-228.
7. Franz MJ, VanWormerr JJ, Crain AL, Boucher JL, Histon T, Caplan W, Bowman JD, Pronk NP. Weight-loss outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of weight-loss clinical trials with a minimum 1-year follow-up. J Am Diet Assoc 2007; 107: 1755-1767.
8. Wing RR, Espeland MA, Clark JM, Hazuda HP, Knowler WC, Pownall HJ, Unick J, Wadden T, Wagenknecht L. Association of weight-loss maintenance and weight regain on 4-year changes in CVD risk factors: The action for health in diabetes (Look AHEAD) clinical trial. Diabetes Care 2016; 39: 1345-1355.
9. Christensen S. recognizing obesity as a disease. J Am Assoc Nurse Pract 2020; 32: 497-503.
10. Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, Schmidova K, Wisse BE, Weigle DS. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes 2001; 50: 1714-1719.
11. Cummings DE, Weigle DS, Frayo RS, Breen PA, Ma MK, Dellinger EP, Purnell JQ. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1623-1630.
12. Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Brynes AE, Frost GS, Murphy KG, Dhillo WS, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 5992.
13. Laferrere B, Abraham C, Russell CD, Bowers CY. Growth hormone releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2), like ghrelin, increases food intake in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 611–614.
14. Pradhan G, Samson SL, Sun Y. Ghrelin: much more than a hunger hormone. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2013;16: 619624.
15. Cannon WB, Washburn AL. An explanation of hunger. Am J Physiol 1912; 29: 441-454.
16. Marciani L, Cox EF, Pritchard SE, major G, Hoad CL, Mellows M, Hussein MO, Costigan C, Fox M, Gowland PA, Spiller RC. Additive effects of gastric volumes and macronutrient composition on the sensation of postprandial fullness in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 2015; 69: 380-384.
17. Berthoud H-R. Vagal and hormonal gut-brain communication: from satiation to satisfaction. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008; 20 (Suppl 11): 64-72.
18. Kendall A, Levitsky DA, Strupp BJ, Lissner L. Weight loss on a low-fat diet: Consequence of the imprecision of the control of food intake in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 53: 1124–1129.
19. Rolls BJ, Roe LS. Effect of volume of liquid food infused intragastrically on satiety in women. Physiol Behav 2002; 76: 623-631.
20. Borer KT, Wuorinen E, Ku K, Burant C. Appetite responds to changes in meal content, whereas ghrelin, leptin, and insulin track changes in energy availability. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 2290-2298.
21. Gibbs J, Young RC Smith GP. Cholecystokinin elicits satiety in rats with open gastric fistulas. Nature 1973; 245:323-325.
22. Kissileff HR, Carretta JC, Geliebter A, Pi-Sunyer FX. Cholecystokinin and stomach distension combine to reduce food intake in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 285: R992-R998.
23. Baggio LL, Drucker DJ. Biology of incretins: GLP-1 and GIP. Gastroenterology 2007; 132: 2131-2157.
24. Holst JJ. The physiology of glucagon-like peptide-1. Physiol Rev 2007; 87: 1409-1439.
25. Van Clitters GW, Lin HC. Ileal brake: neuropeptidergic control of intestinal transit. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2006; 8: 367-373.
26. Borer KT, Lin P-J, Wuorinen E. Timing of meals and exercise affects hormonal control of glucoregulation, insulin resistance, substrate metabolism, and gastrointestinal hormones but has little effect on appetite in postmenopausal women. Nutrients 2021; 13: 4342.
27. De Castro JM. Social facilitation of duration and size but not rate of the spontaneous meal intake of humans. Physiol Behav 1990; 47: 1129–1135.
28. Ross S, Ross JG. Social facilitation of feeding behavior in dogs: I. group and solitary feeding. Pedagog Semin J Genet Psychol 1949; 74: 97–108.
29. Strobel MG, Macdonald GE. Induction of eating in newly hatched chicks. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1974; 86: 493–502.
30. Crook, C. Taste perception in the newborn infant. Infant Behav Dev 1978; 1: 52–69.
31. Berridge KC. ‘Liking’ and ‘wanting’ food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders. Physiol Behav 2009; 97: 537–550.
32. Raynor HA, Vadiveloo M. Understanding the relationship between food variety, food intake, and energy balance. Curr Obes Rep 2018; 7: 68–75.
33. Nguyen BP, Powell LM. The impact of restaurant consumption among US adults: Effects on energy and nutrient intakes. Public Health Nutr 2014; 17: 2445–2452.
34. Harris JL, Bargh JA, Brownell KD. Priming effects of television food advertising on eating behavior. Health Psychol 2009; 28: 404–413.
35. Dongen MV-V, Kok FJ, de Graaf C. Eating rate of commonly consumed foods promotes food and energy intake. Appetite 2011; 56: 25–31.
36. Vercammen KA, Frelier JM, Moran AJ, Dunn CG, Musicus AA, Wolfson J, Ullah OS, Bleich SN. Understanding price incentives to upsize combination meals at large US fast-food restaurants. Public Health Nutr 2020; 23: 348–355.
37. Rolls BJ, Roe LS, Kral TV, Meengs JS, Wall ED. Increasing the portion size of a packaged snack increases energy intake in men and women. Appetite 2004; 42: 63-69.
38. Wansink B, Kim J. Bad popcorn in big buckets: portion size can influence intake as much as taste. J Nutr Educ Behav 2005; 37: 242–245.
39. Gill S, Panda S. A smartphone app reveals erratic diurnal eating patterns in humans that can be modulated for health benefits. Cell Metab 2015; 22: 789–798.
40. Popp CJ, Curran MN, Wang C, Prassad M, Fine K, Gee A, Nair N, Perdomo K, Chen S, Hu L, St-Jules DE, Manoogian ENC, Panda S, Sevick MA, Laferrère B. Temporal eating patterns and eating windows among adults with overweight or obesity. Nutrients 2021; 13: 4485.
41. Vandevijvere S, Chow CC, Hall KD, Umali E, Swinburn BA. Increased food energy supply as a major driver of the obesity epidemic: A global analysis. Bull World Health Organ 2015; 93: 446–456.
42. Zobel EH, Hansen T, Rossing P, von Scholten BJ. Global Changes in Food Supply and the Obesity Epidemic. Curr Obes Rep 2016; 5: 449–455.
43. Smoliga JM. Modelling the maximal active consumption rate and its plasticity in humans- perspective from hot-dog eating competition. Biol Lett 2020; 16: 20200096.
44. US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. 7th Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2010.
45. Keys A, Grande F. Role of dietary fat in human nutrition:III Diet and the epidemiology of coronary heart disease. Am J Public Health Nations Health 1957, 47, 1520-1530.
46. Cohen E, Cragg M, deFonseka J, Hite A, Rosenberg M, Zhou B. Statistical review of US macronutrient consumption data, 1965±2011: Americans have been following dietary guidelines, coincident with the rise in obesity. Nutrition. 2015; 31:727-732.
47. Gluck ME, Venti CA, Arline D, Salbe AD, Votruba SB, Jonathan Krakoff J. Higher 24-h respiratory quotient and higher spontaneous physical activity in nighttime eaters. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011; 19: 319-323.
48. Stahl ML, Orr WC, Bollinger C. Postprandial sleepiness: objective documentation via polysomnography. Sleep 1983; 6: 29-35.
49. Routenberg A, Kuznesof AW, Self-starvation of rats living in activity wheels on a restricted feeding schedule. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1967; 64: 414-421.
50. Rising R, Harper IT, Fintvielle AM, Ferraro RT, Spraul M, Ravussin E. Determinants of total daily energy expenditure: Variability in physical activity. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 800–804.
51. Schulz L, Schoeller DA. A compilation of total daily energy expenditures and body weights in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 60: 676–681.
52. Bassett DR, Schneider PL, Huntington GE. Physical activity in an Old Order Amish community. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 79-85.
53. Bell AC, Ge K, Popkin BM. the road to obesity or the path to prevention: motorized transportation and obesity in China. Obes Res 2002; 10: 277–283.
54. Swanson KC, Cormack GR. The relations between driving behavior, physical activity, and weight status among Canadian adults. J Phys Act Health 2012; 9: 352–359.
55. Frank LD, Andresen M, Schmid TL. Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars. Am J Prev Med 2004; 27: 87–96.
56. Lindström, M. Means of transportation to work and overweight and obesity: A population-based study in southern Sweden. Prev. Med. 2008; 46: 22–28.
57. Heldstab SA, van Schaik CP, Isler K. Being fat and smart: A comparative analysis of the fat-brain trade-off in mammals. J Hum Evol 2016; 100: 25–34.
58. Wells JCK. The evolution of human fatness and susceptibility to obesity: An ethological approach. Biol Rev 2006; 81: 183–205.
59. Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D, Jr, Seeley RJ, Baskin DG. Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 2000; 404: 661–671.
60. Zhang Y, Proenca R, Maffei M, Barone M, Leopold L, Friedman JM. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 1994; 372(6505): 425–432.
61. Frederich RC, Hamann A, Anderson S, Löllman B, Lowell BB, Flier JS. Leptin levels reflect body lipid content in mice: Evidence for diet-induced resistance to leptin action. Nature Med 1995; 1: 1311-1314.
62. Heymsfield SB, Greenberg AS, Fujioka K, et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: A randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 1568–1575.
63. Rosenbaum M, Goldsmith R, Bloomfield D, Magnano A, Weimer L, Heymsfield S, Gallagher D, Mayer L, Murphy E, Leibel RL. Low-dose leptin reverses skeletal muscle, autonomic, and neuroendocrine adaptations to maintenance of reduced weight. J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 3579-3586.
64. Sobhani I, Bado A, Vissuzaine C, Buyse M, Kermorgant S, Laigneau JP, Attoub S, Lehy T, Henin D, Mignon M, Lewin MJ. Leptin secretion and leptin receptor in the human stomach. Gut 2000; 47: 178-183.
65. Cammisotto PG, Levy E, Bukowiecki LJ, Bendayan M. Cross-talk between adipose and gastric leptins for the control of food intake and energy metabolism. Prog Histochem Cytochem. 2010; 45: 143-200.
66. Borer KT. Counterregulation of insulin by leptin as key component of autonomic regulation of body weight. World J Diabetes 2014; 5: 606-629.
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