A Case Report of Danish Students’ Wellbeing and Stress in a Time of Crisis and Recoveries
Main Article Content
Abstract
This article examines Danish students’ wellbeing, distinguishing between emotional, social, and academic wellbeing and between different types of stressors, understood as factors that can respectively induce and mitigate the risk of stress. An exploratory factor analyses on data from Danish students in December 2022 empirically confirm the three dimensions of wellbeing and identify two stressor factors (anxiety and security). The article illustrates how the wellbeing and stressor factors can be used in a cluster analysis to identify and clarify students at risk. In a cross-sectional perspective focusing on December 2022, the article identifies six clusters of Danish students with different levels of wellbeing and stressors. The students in the different clusters have varying characteristics with regard to the five factors (three wellbeing and two stressors) and thus also to what degree they each suffer. By applying The Stress Framework, we characterize the different clusters as a cluster with no stress (20% of the students), a cluster with positive-to-tolerable stress (20% of the students), a cluster with tolerable stress (23% of the students), a cluster with tolerable-to-toxic stress (16% of the students), and two clusters with toxic stress (9% and 12% of the students respectively). Finally, we discuss which of the clusters of students that are in risk of negative long-term educational consequences, and we suggest that it is important to implement mitigating initiatives aimed at students with characteristics as those in the identified clusters with tolerable-to-toxic and toxic stress.
Keywords:
Covid-19 pandemic, primary school, emotional wellbeing, social wellbeing, academic wellbeing, stressors, students at risk
Article Details
How to Cite
QVORTRUP, A.; LYKKEGAARD, E..
A Case Report of Danish Students’ Wellbeing and Stress in a Time of Crisis and Recoveries.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 5, may 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3858>. Date accessed: 04 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i5.3858.
Section
Case Reports
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Barican JL, Yung D, Schwartz C, et al (2022). Prevalence of childhood mental disorders in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis to inform policymaking. Evidence-Based Mental Health 2022; 25:36-44.
2. World Health Organization (2022). Adolescent Mental Health. Fact sheets. Retrieved 10 March 2023 from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
3. Korsgaard, S (ed). (2022). Børn og unge kæmper for at passe ind [Children and young people struggle to fit in]. Børns Vilkår [Children Rights National Association).
4. Sundhedsstyrelsen [Danish Health Authority] (2022). Danskernes sundhed: Den Nationale Sundhedsprofl 2021– centrale udfordringer [Health of the Danes: The National Health Profile 2021 – main challenges]. Copenhagen: Danish Health Authority.
5. Meherali, S.; Punjani, N.; Louie-Poon, S.; Abdul Rahim, K.; Das, J.K.; Salam, R.A.; Lassi, Z.S. (2021) Mental Health of Children and Adolescents Amidst COVID-19 and Past Pandemics: A Rapid Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18, 3432.
6. Lehmann, S., Skogen, J.C., Sandal, G.M. et al. (2022). Emerging mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic among presumably resilient youth -a 9-month follow-up. BMC Psychiatry, 22, 67. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03650-z
7. von Soest, T.; Kozák, M.; Rodriguez Cano, R.; Fluit, A-M.; Cortes Garcia, L.; Ulset, V. S.; Ebad Fardzadeh, H.; Bakken, A. (2022). Adolescents’ psychosocial well-being one year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway. Nature Human Behaviour 6, 217–228
8. Furlong, A., & Cartmel, F. (1997). Young people and social change: Individualization and risk in late modernity. Open university press.
9. Görlich, A., Pless, M., Katznelson, N., & Graversen, L. (2019). Ny udsathed i ungdomslivet: 11 forskere om den stigende mistrivsel blandt unge. Hans Reitzels Forlag.
10. Ottosen, M. H., Andersen, A. G., Dahl, K. M., Hestbæk, A.-D., Lausten, M., & Rayce, S. B. (2018). Børn og unge i –anmark - Velfærd og trivsel. Retrieved from https://www.vive.dk/media/pure/10762/2240313
11. The Annie E. Casey Foundation (2020). KIDS COUNT Data Book, 2020: State Trends in Child Wellbeing. Retrieved December 23, 2020 from https://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-2020kidscountdatabook-2020.pdf
12. Brooks, S. K.; Webster, R. K.; Smith, L. E.; Woodland, L.; Wessely, S.; Greenberg, N. & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Doi:10.1016/ S2215–0366(20)30077–8.
13. Aspen Institute (2020). State Actions to Support Social, Emotional, and Academic Development: Fostering Connectedness in the Pandemic Era. Education & Society Program. Retrieved 21 January 2022 from https://www.aspeninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/AESP-State-SEAD-Actions-for-COVID-19.pdf
14. Ahtiainen, R., Asikainen, M., Heikonen, L., Hienonen, N., Hotulainen, R., Lindfors, P., Lindgren , E., Lintuvuori, M., Kinnunen, J., Koivuhovi, S., Mergianian, C., Myöhänen, A., Oinas, S., Rimpelä, A., Vainikainen, M-P., & Wallenius, T. (2021). Koulunkäynti, opetus ja hyvinvointi kouluyhteisössä koronaepidemian aikana: tuloksia kevään 2021 aineistonkeruusta: Väliraportti syksy 2021. [Schooling, teaching and wellbeing in the school community during the COVID-19 pandemic. Report of Autumn 2021] Retrieved 12 March 2023 from: https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/files/169910561/2021_Koulunk_ynti_opetus_ja_hyvinvointi_kouluyhteis_ss_koronaepidemian_aikana_v_liraportti.pdf
15. Qvortrup, A. (2022). Stressors from and well-being after COVID-19 among Danish primary and lower secondary school students. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2022.2116483
16. Burgess, S. & Sievertsen, H. H. (2020). Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education. CEPR Policy Portal, University of Bristol.
17. Qvortrup, A.; Christensen, J. & Lomholt, R. (2020). Elevers mestringsoplevelser under online-nødunderviIningen i forbindelse med Covid-19-skolelukningerne. Learning Tech – Tidsskrift for læremidler, didaktik og teknologi 5(7), 12-39
18. Qvortrup, A. & Lykkegaard, E. (2022). Building Back Better: Lessons learned from a year with COVID 10 caused changes to school and teaching. Educational 3-13. doi:10.1080/03004279.2023.2186975
19. Martela, F. & Sheldon, K.M. (2019). Clarifying the Concept of Well-Being: Psychological Need Satisfaction as the Common Core Connecting Eudaimonic and Subjective Well-Being. Review of General Psychology, 23(4): 458-474. doi:10.1177/1089268019880886
20. Delle Fave, A. (2016). Subjective indicators of well-being: Conceptual background and applications in social sciences. In Bruni, L. & Porta, P. L. (eds.). Handbook of research methods and applications in happiness and quality of life (p. 71–89). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
21. Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A. A. (2015). Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. The Lancet, 385, 14–20.
22. Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., Parkinson, J.; Secker, J. & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(63). doi:10.1186/1477-7525-5-63
23. Clark, A. E. (2016). SWB as a measure of individual well-being. In Adler, M. D. & Fleurbaey, M. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of well-being and public policy (p. 518–552). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
24. Dolan, P., Layard, R., & Metcalfe, R. (2011). Measuring subjective well-being for public policy. London, England: Office for National Statistics.
25. National Research Council. (2013). Subjective well-being: Measuring happiness, suffering, and other dimensions of experience. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
26. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013). OECD guidelines on measuring subjective wellbeing. Paris, France: Author.
27. Graham, C., & Nikolova, M. (2015). Bentham or Aristotle in the development process? An empirical investigation of capabilities and subjective well-being. World Development, 68, 163–179.
28. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57: 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.57.6.1069
29. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52: 141–166.
30. Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62: 95–108.
31. Schapira, R. & Aram, D. (2020). Shared Book Reading at Home and Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Competence. Early Education and Development 31(6): 819-837. doi:10.1080/10409289.2019.1692624
32. Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1): 71–75.
33. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1): 34–43.
34. Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(2): 137–152.
35. Fave, A.D.; Brdar, I.; Freire, T.; Vella-Brodrick, D. & Wissing, M.P. (2010). The Eudaimonic and Hedonic Components of Happiness: Qualitative and Quantitative Findings. Soc Indic Res, 100: 185-207. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9632-5
36. Massimini, F., & Delle Fave, D. A. (2000). Individual development in a bio-cultural perspective. American Psychologist, 55(1): 24–33.
37. Aspelin, J. (2019). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ socio-emotional competence. International Journal of Emotional Education 11(1): 153-168
38. Hochschild, A. R. (1990). Ideology and emotion management: a perspective and path for future research. In T. Kemper (ed.). Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp 117-121). State University of New York Press.
39. Hurka, T. (2019). On ‘Hybrid’ Theories of Personal Good. Utilitas, 31(4), 450–462. doi:10.1017/S0953820819000256
40. Dodge, R., Daly, A., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3), 222–235. doi:10.5502/ijw.v2i3.4
41. Duckworth, A.L; Steen, T. A. & Seligman, M.E.P (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology: 629–651. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154
42. Linley, P.A.; Joseph, S.; Harrington, S. & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. Journal of Positive Psychology 1: 3–16. doi:10.1080/17439760500372796
43. Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207-222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197
44. Séguin, D. G., & MacDonald, B. (2017). The role of emotion regulation and temperament in the prediction of the quality of social relationships in early childhood. Early Child Development and Care: 1–17. doi:10.1080/03004430.2016.1251678
45. Oberle, E. (2018). Early Adolescents' Emotional Well-Being in the Classroom: The Role of Personal and Contextual Assets. Journal of School Health, 88(2): 101-111
46. Jørring, A.H.; Mads Bølling, Glen Nielsen, Matt P. Stevenson & Peter Bentsen (2020) Swings and roundabouts? Pupils’ experiences of social and academic well-being in education outside the classroom. Education 3-13, 48(4): 413-428. doi:10.1080/03004279.2019.1614643
47. Headey, B.W.; Holmstrom, E. & Wearing, A. J. (1984a). The impact of life events and changes in domain satisfactions on wellbeing. Social Indicators Research 15: 203–227. doi:10.1007/BF00668671
48. Headey, B.W.; Holmstrom, E. & Wearing, A. J. (1984b). Wellbeing and ill-being: Different dimensions? Social Indicators Research 14: 115–139. doi:10.1007/BF00293406
49. Headey, B. W. (2006). Happiness: Revising set point theory and dynamic equilibrium theory to account for long term change. DIW German Institute for Economic Research
50. Arnott, L. (2018). Children's negotiation tactics and socio-emotional self-regulation in child-led play experiences: the influence of the preschool pedagogic culture. Early Child Development and Care, 188(7): 951-965. doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1443919
51. Florez, I. R. (2011). Developing young Children’s Self-regulation through everyday experience. Young Children, 66(4), 46–51.
52. Skibbe, L. E., Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Jewkes, A. M. (2011). Schooling effects on preschoolers’ self-regulation, early literacy, and language growth. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.05.001
53. Ashiabi, G. S. (2000). Promoting the emotional development of preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28(2), 79–84. Doi:10.1023/A:1009543203089
54. Shah, H. & Marks, N. (2004). A well-being manifesto for a flourishing society. The New Economics Foundation
55. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004a). Children’s emotional development is built into the architecture of their brains. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2004/04/Childrens-Emotional-Development-Is-Built-into-the-Architecture-of-Their-Brains.pdf
56. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004b). Young children develop in an environment of relationships. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2004/04/Young-Children-Develop-in-an-Environment-of-Relationships.pdf
57. The science of early childhood development (2007): Closing the gap between what we know and what we do. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Science_Early_Childhood_Development.pdf
58. Shanks, T.R.W. & Robinson, C. (2013). Assets, economic opportunity and toxic stress: A framework for understanding child and educational outcomes. Economics of Education Review 33: 154–170
59. McEwen, B.S. & Sapolsky, R.M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 5(2):205-216.
doi:10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-x.
60. McEwen, B.S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583: 174–185.
61. Lupien, S. J.; de Leon, M.; de Santi, S.; Convit, A.; Tarshish, C.; Nair, N. P.; Thakur, M.; McEwen, B.S.; Hauger, R.L. & Meaney, M.J. (1998). Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1): 69–73. doi:10.1038/271.
62. Loman, M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6): 867–876. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007.
63. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. (2000). How do glucorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21(1): 55–89.
64. Zhang, T., Parent, T., Weaver, I., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Maternal programming of individual differences in defensive responses in the rat. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1032: 85–103.
65. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.
66. Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educationaland Psychological Measurement, 20: 141–151. doi:10.1177/001316446002000116
67. Ursachi, G.; Horodnic, I. A. & Zait, A. (2015). How Reliable are Measurement Scales? External Factors with Indirect Influence on Reliability Estimators. Procedia Economics and Finance, 20: 679-686. doi:10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00123-9.
68. Ward, J. H. (1963). Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58: 236–244.69. Aldenderfer, M. S., & Blashfield, R. K. (1984). Cluster analysis (Vol. 44). London;Newbury Park, Calif;: Sage.
69. Gallagher, M.W.; Smith, L.J.; Richardson, A.L.; D’Souza, J. M. & Long, L.J. (2021). Examining the longitudinal effects and potential mechanisms of hope on COVID-19 stress, anxiety, and well-being. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 50(3): 234-245. doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1877341
70. Lykkegaard, E.; Qvortrup, A. & Jensen, C.J.D. (2023). Well-being and COVID 19 related stressors: Fluctuations during the pandemic (in review).
2. World Health Organization (2022). Adolescent Mental Health. Fact sheets. Retrieved 10 March 2023 from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
3. Korsgaard, S (ed). (2022). Børn og unge kæmper for at passe ind [Children and young people struggle to fit in]. Børns Vilkår [Children Rights National Association).
4. Sundhedsstyrelsen [Danish Health Authority] (2022). Danskernes sundhed: Den Nationale Sundhedsprofl 2021– centrale udfordringer [Health of the Danes: The National Health Profile 2021 – main challenges]. Copenhagen: Danish Health Authority.
5. Meherali, S.; Punjani, N.; Louie-Poon, S.; Abdul Rahim, K.; Das, J.K.; Salam, R.A.; Lassi, Z.S. (2021) Mental Health of Children and Adolescents Amidst COVID-19 and Past Pandemics: A Rapid Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18, 3432.
6. Lehmann, S., Skogen, J.C., Sandal, G.M. et al. (2022). Emerging mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic among presumably resilient youth -a 9-month follow-up. BMC Psychiatry, 22, 67. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03650-z
7. von Soest, T.; Kozák, M.; Rodriguez Cano, R.; Fluit, A-M.; Cortes Garcia, L.; Ulset, V. S.; Ebad Fardzadeh, H.; Bakken, A. (2022). Adolescents’ psychosocial well-being one year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway. Nature Human Behaviour 6, 217–228
8. Furlong, A., & Cartmel, F. (1997). Young people and social change: Individualization and risk in late modernity. Open university press.
9. Görlich, A., Pless, M., Katznelson, N., & Graversen, L. (2019). Ny udsathed i ungdomslivet: 11 forskere om den stigende mistrivsel blandt unge. Hans Reitzels Forlag.
10. Ottosen, M. H., Andersen, A. G., Dahl, K. M., Hestbæk, A.-D., Lausten, M., & Rayce, S. B. (2018). Børn og unge i –anmark - Velfærd og trivsel. Retrieved from https://www.vive.dk/media/pure/10762/2240313
11. The Annie E. Casey Foundation (2020). KIDS COUNT Data Book, 2020: State Trends in Child Wellbeing. Retrieved December 23, 2020 from https://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-2020kidscountdatabook-2020.pdf
12. Brooks, S. K.; Webster, R. K.; Smith, L. E.; Woodland, L.; Wessely, S.; Greenberg, N. & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Doi:10.1016/ S2215–0366(20)30077–8.
13. Aspen Institute (2020). State Actions to Support Social, Emotional, and Academic Development: Fostering Connectedness in the Pandemic Era. Education & Society Program. Retrieved 21 January 2022 from https://www.aspeninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/AESP-State-SEAD-Actions-for-COVID-19.pdf
14. Ahtiainen, R., Asikainen, M., Heikonen, L., Hienonen, N., Hotulainen, R., Lindfors, P., Lindgren , E., Lintuvuori, M., Kinnunen, J., Koivuhovi, S., Mergianian, C., Myöhänen, A., Oinas, S., Rimpelä, A., Vainikainen, M-P., & Wallenius, T. (2021). Koulunkäynti, opetus ja hyvinvointi kouluyhteisössä koronaepidemian aikana: tuloksia kevään 2021 aineistonkeruusta: Väliraportti syksy 2021. [Schooling, teaching and wellbeing in the school community during the COVID-19 pandemic. Report of Autumn 2021] Retrieved 12 March 2023 from: https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/files/169910561/2021_Koulunk_ynti_opetus_ja_hyvinvointi_kouluyhteis_ss_koronaepidemian_aikana_v_liraportti.pdf
15. Qvortrup, A. (2022). Stressors from and well-being after COVID-19 among Danish primary and lower secondary school students. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2022.2116483
16. Burgess, S. & Sievertsen, H. H. (2020). Schools, skills, and learning: The impact of COVID-19 on education. CEPR Policy Portal, University of Bristol.
17. Qvortrup, A.; Christensen, J. & Lomholt, R. (2020). Elevers mestringsoplevelser under online-nødunderviIningen i forbindelse med Covid-19-skolelukningerne. Learning Tech – Tidsskrift for læremidler, didaktik og teknologi 5(7), 12-39
18. Qvortrup, A. & Lykkegaard, E. (2022). Building Back Better: Lessons learned from a year with COVID 10 caused changes to school and teaching. Educational 3-13. doi:10.1080/03004279.2023.2186975
19. Martela, F. & Sheldon, K.M. (2019). Clarifying the Concept of Well-Being: Psychological Need Satisfaction as the Common Core Connecting Eudaimonic and Subjective Well-Being. Review of General Psychology, 23(4): 458-474. doi:10.1177/1089268019880886
20. Delle Fave, A. (2016). Subjective indicators of well-being: Conceptual background and applications in social sciences. In Bruni, L. & Porta, P. L. (eds.). Handbook of research methods and applications in happiness and quality of life (p. 71–89). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
21. Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A. A. (2015). Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. The Lancet, 385, 14–20.
22. Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., Parkinson, J.; Secker, J. & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(63). doi:10.1186/1477-7525-5-63
23. Clark, A. E. (2016). SWB as a measure of individual well-being. In Adler, M. D. & Fleurbaey, M. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of well-being and public policy (p. 518–552). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
24. Dolan, P., Layard, R., & Metcalfe, R. (2011). Measuring subjective well-being for public policy. London, England: Office for National Statistics.
25. National Research Council. (2013). Subjective well-being: Measuring happiness, suffering, and other dimensions of experience. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
26. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013). OECD guidelines on measuring subjective wellbeing. Paris, France: Author.
27. Graham, C., & Nikolova, M. (2015). Bentham or Aristotle in the development process? An empirical investigation of capabilities and subjective well-being. World Development, 68, 163–179.
28. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57: 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.57.6.1069
29. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52: 141–166.
30. Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62: 95–108.
31. Schapira, R. & Aram, D. (2020). Shared Book Reading at Home and Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Competence. Early Education and Development 31(6): 819-837. doi:10.1080/10409289.2019.1692624
32. Diener, E., Emmons, R., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1): 71–75.
33. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1): 34–43.
34. Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(2): 137–152.
35. Fave, A.D.; Brdar, I.; Freire, T.; Vella-Brodrick, D. & Wissing, M.P. (2010). The Eudaimonic and Hedonic Components of Happiness: Qualitative and Quantitative Findings. Soc Indic Res, 100: 185-207. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9632-5
36. Massimini, F., & Delle Fave, D. A. (2000). Individual development in a bio-cultural perspective. American Psychologist, 55(1): 24–33.
37. Aspelin, J. (2019). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ socio-emotional competence. International Journal of Emotional Education 11(1): 153-168
38. Hochschild, A. R. (1990). Ideology and emotion management: a perspective and path for future research. In T. Kemper (ed.). Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp 117-121). State University of New York Press.
39. Hurka, T. (2019). On ‘Hybrid’ Theories of Personal Good. Utilitas, 31(4), 450–462. doi:10.1017/S0953820819000256
40. Dodge, R., Daly, A., Huyton, J., & Sanders, L. (2012). The challenge of defining wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3), 222–235. doi:10.5502/ijw.v2i3.4
41. Duckworth, A.L; Steen, T. A. & Seligman, M.E.P (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology: 629–651. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154
42. Linley, P.A.; Joseph, S.; Harrington, S. & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. Journal of Positive Psychology 1: 3–16. doi:10.1080/17439760500372796
43. Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207-222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197
44. Séguin, D. G., & MacDonald, B. (2017). The role of emotion regulation and temperament in the prediction of the quality of social relationships in early childhood. Early Child Development and Care: 1–17. doi:10.1080/03004430.2016.1251678
45. Oberle, E. (2018). Early Adolescents' Emotional Well-Being in the Classroom: The Role of Personal and Contextual Assets. Journal of School Health, 88(2): 101-111
46. Jørring, A.H.; Mads Bølling, Glen Nielsen, Matt P. Stevenson & Peter Bentsen (2020) Swings and roundabouts? Pupils’ experiences of social and academic well-being in education outside the classroom. Education 3-13, 48(4): 413-428. doi:10.1080/03004279.2019.1614643
47. Headey, B.W.; Holmstrom, E. & Wearing, A. J. (1984a). The impact of life events and changes in domain satisfactions on wellbeing. Social Indicators Research 15: 203–227. doi:10.1007/BF00668671
48. Headey, B.W.; Holmstrom, E. & Wearing, A. J. (1984b). Wellbeing and ill-being: Different dimensions? Social Indicators Research 14: 115–139. doi:10.1007/BF00293406
49. Headey, B. W. (2006). Happiness: Revising set point theory and dynamic equilibrium theory to account for long term change. DIW German Institute for Economic Research
50. Arnott, L. (2018). Children's negotiation tactics and socio-emotional self-regulation in child-led play experiences: the influence of the preschool pedagogic culture. Early Child Development and Care, 188(7): 951-965. doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1443919
51. Florez, I. R. (2011). Developing young Children’s Self-regulation through everyday experience. Young Children, 66(4), 46–51.
52. Skibbe, L. E., Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Jewkes, A. M. (2011). Schooling effects on preschoolers’ self-regulation, early literacy, and language growth. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.05.001
53. Ashiabi, G. S. (2000). Promoting the emotional development of preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28(2), 79–84. Doi:10.1023/A:1009543203089
54. Shah, H. & Marks, N. (2004). A well-being manifesto for a flourishing society. The New Economics Foundation
55. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2004a). Children’s emotional development is built into the architecture of their brains. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2004/04/Childrens-Emotional-Development-Is-Built-into-the-Architecture-of-Their-Brains.pdf
56. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004b). Young children develop in an environment of relationships. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2004/04/Young-Children-Develop-in-an-Environment-of-Relationships.pdf
57. The science of early childhood development (2007): Closing the gap between what we know and what we do. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved March 31 2021 from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Science_Early_Childhood_Development.pdf
58. Shanks, T.R.W. & Robinson, C. (2013). Assets, economic opportunity and toxic stress: A framework for understanding child and educational outcomes. Economics of Education Review 33: 154–170
59. McEwen, B.S. & Sapolsky, R.M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 5(2):205-216.
doi:10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-x.
60. McEwen, B.S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583: 174–185.
61. Lupien, S. J.; de Leon, M.; de Santi, S.; Convit, A.; Tarshish, C.; Nair, N. P.; Thakur, M.; McEwen, B.S.; Hauger, R.L. & Meaney, M.J. (1998). Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1): 69–73. doi:10.1038/271.
62. Loman, M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6): 867–876. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007.
63. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. (2000). How do glucorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21(1): 55–89.
64. Zhang, T., Parent, T., Weaver, I., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Maternal programming of individual differences in defensive responses in the rat. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1032: 85–103.
65. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.
66. Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educationaland Psychological Measurement, 20: 141–151. doi:10.1177/001316446002000116
67. Ursachi, G.; Horodnic, I. A. & Zait, A. (2015). How Reliable are Measurement Scales? External Factors with Indirect Influence on Reliability Estimators. Procedia Economics and Finance, 20: 679-686. doi:10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00123-9.
68. Ward, J. H. (1963). Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58: 236–244.69. Aldenderfer, M. S., & Blashfield, R. K. (1984). Cluster analysis (Vol. 44). London;Newbury Park, Calif;: Sage.
69. Gallagher, M.W.; Smith, L.J.; Richardson, A.L.; D’Souza, J. M. & Long, L.J. (2021). Examining the longitudinal effects and potential mechanisms of hope on COVID-19 stress, anxiety, and well-being. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 50(3): 234-245. doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1877341
70. Lykkegaard, E.; Qvortrup, A. & Jensen, C.J.D. (2023). Well-being and COVID 19 related stressors: Fluctuations during the pandemic (in review).