The Interplay of Situations, Social Roles, and Virtue Expression
Main Article Content
Abstract
We discuss human traits and their contextualization in situations and social roles. Our focus is ultimately to explore the contextualization of virtue traits, but most of the research on contextualizing traits has, up to now, been centered on personality traits. Therefore, much of our examination is on how personality traits relate to contextual factors, but we extrapolate those findings to virtues and discuss theory and research related to the contextualization of virtue traits. In the exploration of trait contextualization, we clarify that current understandings of traits do not take them to be simplistic behavioral tendencies that manifest despite contextual influences. Instead, the contemporary understanding of traits is that they are influenced by both situational factors and social role expectations. This means that personality and virtue traits will be appropriate in some contexts but not others, and that when they are expressed, that expression can be expected to be modified by the context. We begin with a brief introduction to the concept of virtues, following the STRIVE-4 Model of virtues. We then explore direct situational influence on action, the ways individuals influence situations, and three types of person-situation interactions. We then present practical wisdom as a generally neglected feature of person-situation interactions. We argue that practical wisdom's role in person-situation interactions goes beyond what shows up in personality research by clarifying that some individuals see more opportunities for virtue trait expression in situations than others. Moreover, this practical wisdom underwrites high-quality decision-making. Our discussion of the social role contextualization of virtues follows that is based on Identity Theory, which explains that social roles are repetitive patterns of action that are included in social structures and result in role identity formation in the individual. We then clarify this theoretical discussion with examples of common role and virtue enactments from the parenting, teaching, and healing roles. We conclude by discussing how a virtue perspective adds important elements (agency, aspiration, and practical wisdom) to the contextualization of traits.
Keywords:
trait, situation, role, traitXsituation interaction, virtue
Article Details
How to Cite
FOWERS, Blaine J.; NOVAK, Lukas F.; SELIM, Marah.
The Interplay of Situations, Social Roles, and Virtue Expression.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 6, june 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/3934>. Date accessed: 22 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i6.3934.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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2. Wright J, Warren M, Snow N. Understanding virtue: Theory and measurement. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2021.
3. Kristjánsson K. Virtues and vices in positive psychology: A philosophical critique. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2013.
4. Fowers BJ. From continence to virtue: Recovering goodness, character unity, and character types for positive psychology. Theory & Psychol. 2008;18:629-653.
5. Aristotle. Nicomachean ethics, trans. T. Irwin. Hackett Publishing; 1985.
6. Kristjánsson K, Fowers BJ, Darnell C, Pollard D. Phronesis (practical wisdom) as a type of contextual integrative thinking. Rev Gen Psychol. 2021;25(3):239-257.
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8. Colman W. Psychotherapy as a skilled practice. J Anal Psychol. 2020; 65(4):624-644.
9. Kaldjian LC. Practicing medicine and ethics: Integrating wisdom, conscience, and goals of care. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2014.
10. Kristjánsson K. Phronesis as an ideal in professional medical ethics: Some preliminary positionings and problematics. Theor Med Bioeth. 2015;36:299-320.
11. Webster GD. The person-situation interaction is increasingly outpacing the person-situation debate in the scientific literature: A 30-year analysis of publication trends, 1978-2007. J Res Pers. 2009;43:278-279.
12. Tracy JL, Robins RW, Sherman JW. The practice of psychological science: Searching for Cronbach’s two streams in social-personality psychology. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009;96:1206-1225.
13. Wood D., Roberts BW. Cross-sectional and longitudinal tests of the Personality and Role Identity Structural Model (PRISM). J Pers. 2006;74(3), 779–809.
14. Furr RM, Funder DC. Persons, situations, and person–situation interactions. In John OP & Robins RW, eds. Handbook of personality: Theory and research; New York: Guilford; 2021.
15. Fowers BJ, Cokelet B, Leonhardt ND. The science of virtue: A framework for research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; in press.
16. Fischer P, Krueger JI, Greitemeyer T, et al. The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(4):517-537.
17. Lefevor GT, Fowers BJ, Ahn S, Lang SF, & Cohen LM. (2017). To what degree do situational influences explain spontaneous helping behaviour? A meta-analysis. Eur Rev Soc Psychol. 2017;28:227-256.
18. Doris JM. Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2002.
19. Mischel W. Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychol Rev. 1973;80:252–283.
20. John OP, Naumann LP, & Soto CJ. Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In: John OP, Robins RW, Pervin LA, eds. Handbook of personality: Theory and research., 3rd ed. New York: Guildford. 2008;114–158.
21. Ashton MC, Lee K, De Vries RE. The HEXACO honesty-humility, agreeableness, and emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2014;18(2):139–152.
22. Markus H, Wurf E. The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Ann Rev Psychol. 1987;38:299-337.
23. Fleeson W. Toward a structure- and process-integrated view of personality: Traits as density distributions of states. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2001;80:1011-1027.
24. Fleeson W, Gallagher P. The implications of big-five standing for the distribution of trait manifestation in behavior: Fifteen experience-sampling studies and a meta- analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009;97:1097-1114.
25. Yao Q, Moskowitz DS. Trait agreeableness and social status moderate behavioral responsiveness to communal behavior. J Pers. 2014;83(2):191-201.
26. Fleeson W, Law MK. Trait enactments as density distributions: The role of actors, situations, and observers in explaining stability and variability. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2015;109(6):1090–1104.
27. Sherman RA, Rauthmann JF, Brown NA, Serfass DG, Jones AB. The independent effects of personality and situations on real-time expressions of behavior and emotion. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2015;109(5):872–888.
28. Wrzus C, Wagner GG, Riediger M. Personality-situation transactions from adolescence to old age. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2016;110(5):782-799.
29. Heller D, Watson D, Komar J, Min J-A, Perunovic WQ. Contextualized personality: Traditional and new assessment procedures. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1229-1254.
30. Todd E, Funder D. Personality correlates of unique perceptions of brief film situations. Poster presented at: Society for Personality and Social Psychology; January, 2012; San Diego, California.
31. Morse PJ, Sauerberger KS, Todd E, Funder DC. Relationships among personality, situational construal, and social outcomes. J Pers. 2015;29:97-106.
32. Morse PJ, Sweeny K, Legg A. A situational construal approach to healthcare experiences. Soc Sci Med, 2015;138:170-178.
33. Zettler I, Hilbig BE. Honesty-humility and a person-situation interaction at work. J Pers. 2010;24(7):569–582.
34. Leikas S, Lönnqvist JE, Verkasalo M. Persons, situations, and behaviors: Consistency and variability of different behaviors in four interpersonal situations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2012;103(6):1007–1022.
35. Simpson B, Willer R. Altruism and indirect reciprocity: The interaction of person and situation in prosocial behavior. Soc Psychol Quart. 2008;71(1):37-52.
36. Bolderdijk JW, Gorsira M, Keizer K, Steg L. Values determine the (in)effectiveness of informational interventions in promoting pro-environmental behavior. PLoS ONE, 2013;8(12).
37. Süssenbach P, Rees J, Gollwitzer M. When the going gets tough, individualizers get going: On the relationship between moral foundations and prosociality. Pers Indiv Diff. 2019;136:122–131.
38. Fowers BJ, Lane AA, Lang SF, Cioffi K, Anderson AR, Cokelet B. Does trait interpersonal fairness moderate situational influence on fairness behavior? Personality Ind Diff, 2022.
39. Gollwitzer M, Rothmund T, Pfeiffer A, Ensenbach C. Why and when justice sensitivity leads to pro- and antisocial behavior. J Res Pers. 2009;43:999-1005.
40. Lotz S, Schlösser T, Cain DM, & Fetchenhaur D. The (in)stability of social preferences: Using justice sensitivity to predict when altruism collapses. J Econ Behav Organ. 2013;93:141-148.
41. Hampson PJ, Hulsey TL, McGarry PP. Moral affordance, moral expertise, and virtue. Theor Psychol. 2021;31(4):513–532.
42. Roberts BW, Wood, D, Smith JL Evaluating Five Factor Theory and social investment perspectives on personality trait development. J Res Pers. 2005;39(1):166–184.
43. Stryker S. Identity theory and personality theory: Mutual relevance. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1083-1102.
44. Roberts BW. Contextualizing personality psychology. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1071-1082.
45. Fowers BJ. The evolution of ethics: Human sociality and the emergence of ethical mindedness. London, England: Palgrave/McMillan.
46. Roberts BW, Damian RI. The principles of personality development and their relation to psychopathology. In: Samuel DB, Lynam DR, eds. Using basic personality research to inform personality pathology. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2019:153-168.
47. Roberts BW, Walton KE, Viechtbauer W. Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol Bull. 2006;132(1):1-25.
48. Lodi-Smith J, Roberts BW. Social Investment and personality: A meta-analysis of the relationship of personality traits to investment in work, family, religion, and volunteerism. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2007;11(1):68-86.
49. McCrae RR, Terracciano A. Personality profiles of cultures: Aggregate personality traits. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2005;89(3):407-425.
50. Lenhart A, Purcell K, Smith A, Zickuhr K. Social media & mobile internet use among teens and young adults. millennials. Pew Internet & American Life Project. 2010; http://pewinternet.org/reports/2010/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx.
51. Klimstra TA, Luyckx K, Branje S, Teppers E, Goossens L, Meeus WHJ. Personality traits, interpersonal identity, and relationship stability: Longitudinal linkages in late adolescence and young adulthood. J Youth Adolesc. 2013;42(11):1661-1673.
52. Hudson NW, Roberts BW. Social investment in work reliably predicts change in conscientiousness and agreeableness: A direct replication and extension of Hudson, Roberts, and Lodi-Smith (2012). J Res Pers. 2016;60:12-23.
53. Hudson NW, Roberts BW, Lodi-Smith J. Personality trait development and social investment in work. J Res Pers, 2012;46(3), 334–344.
54. Bleidorn W, Klimstra TA, Denissen JJ, Rentfrow PJ, Potter J, Gosling SD. Personality maturation around the world: A cross-cultural examination of social-investment theory. Psychol Sci. 2013;24(12): 2530–2540.
55. Bleidorn W. Linking personality states, current social roles and major life goals. Eu Per. 2009;23(6), 509–530.
56. Galdiolo S, Roskam I. Development of personality traits in response to childbirth: A longitudinal dyadic perspective. Pers Indiv Diff. 2014;69:223–230.
57. Van Scheppingen MA, Jackson JJ, Specht J, Hutteman R, Denissen JJ, Bleidorn W. Personality trait development during the transition to parenthood. Soc Psychol Pers Sci. 2016;7(5):452-462.
58. Wee C. Filial obligations: A comparative study. Dao. 2014;13(1):83-97.
59. Darnell C, Fowers BJ, Kristjánsson K. A multifunction approach to assessing Aristotelian phronesis (practical wisdom). Pers Indiv Diff. 2022.
60. Broadie S. Ethics with Aristotle. Oxford University Press. 1991.
61. Del Castillo FA. Virtues in public health: Easing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Public Health. 2021;43(2).
62. Fowers BJ. Virtue and psychology: Pursuing excellence in ordinary practices. Washington, DC:APA Books, 2005.
63. Fowers BJ, Winakur E. Key virtues of the psychotherapist: A eudaimonic view. In S. van Hooft (Ed.), The handbook of virtue ethics (pp. 386-396). Durham, England: Acumen, 2014.
64. Hawking M, Curlin FA, Yoon JD. Courage and compassion: Virtues in caring for so-called “difficult” patients. AMA J Ethics. 2017;19(4):357-363
65. Fowers BJ, Richardson FC, Slife BD. Frailty, suffering, and vice: Flourishing in the face of human limitations. Washington, DC: APA Books, 2017.
66. Garcia JLA. Virtues and principles in biomedical ethics. J Med Phil, 2020;45(4–5):471–503.
67. Begley AM. Truth-telling, honesty and compassion: A virtue-based exploration of a dilemma in practice. Internat J Nurs Prac. 2008;14(5):336–341.
68. Fowers BJ. Psychotherapy, character, and the good life. In B Slife, J Reber, FC Richardson, (Eds.), Critical thinking about psychology: Hidden assumptions and plausible alternatives (pp. 39-59), Washington, DC: APA Books, 2005.
2. Wright J, Warren M, Snow N. Understanding virtue: Theory and measurement. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2021.
3. Kristjánsson K. Virtues and vices in positive psychology: A philosophical critique. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2013.
4. Fowers BJ. From continence to virtue: Recovering goodness, character unity, and character types for positive psychology. Theory & Psychol. 2008;18:629-653.
5. Aristotle. Nicomachean ethics, trans. T. Irwin. Hackett Publishing; 1985.
6. Kristjánsson K, Fowers BJ, Darnell C, Pollard D. Phronesis (practical wisdom) as a type of contextual integrative thinking. Rev Gen Psychol. 2021;25(3):239-257.
7. Fowers BJ, Novak LF, Calder AJ, Sommer RK Beyond an abstract and technical conception of psychotherapy: The indispensable role of practical wisdom. Theory & Psychol, 2022;32(5):691-713.
8. Colman W. Psychotherapy as a skilled practice. J Anal Psychol. 2020; 65(4):624-644.
9. Kaldjian LC. Practicing medicine and ethics: Integrating wisdom, conscience, and goals of care. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2014.
10. Kristjánsson K. Phronesis as an ideal in professional medical ethics: Some preliminary positionings and problematics. Theor Med Bioeth. 2015;36:299-320.
11. Webster GD. The person-situation interaction is increasingly outpacing the person-situation debate in the scientific literature: A 30-year analysis of publication trends, 1978-2007. J Res Pers. 2009;43:278-279.
12. Tracy JL, Robins RW, Sherman JW. The practice of psychological science: Searching for Cronbach’s two streams in social-personality psychology. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009;96:1206-1225.
13. Wood D., Roberts BW. Cross-sectional and longitudinal tests of the Personality and Role Identity Structural Model (PRISM). J Pers. 2006;74(3), 779–809.
14. Furr RM, Funder DC. Persons, situations, and person–situation interactions. In John OP & Robins RW, eds. Handbook of personality: Theory and research; New York: Guilford; 2021.
15. Fowers BJ, Cokelet B, Leonhardt ND. The science of virtue: A framework for research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; in press.
16. Fischer P, Krueger JI, Greitemeyer T, et al. The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychol Bull. 2011;137(4):517-537.
17. Lefevor GT, Fowers BJ, Ahn S, Lang SF, & Cohen LM. (2017). To what degree do situational influences explain spontaneous helping behaviour? A meta-analysis. Eur Rev Soc Psychol. 2017;28:227-256.
18. Doris JM. Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2002.
19. Mischel W. Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychol Rev. 1973;80:252–283.
20. John OP, Naumann LP, & Soto CJ. Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In: John OP, Robins RW, Pervin LA, eds. Handbook of personality: Theory and research., 3rd ed. New York: Guildford. 2008;114–158.
21. Ashton MC, Lee K, De Vries RE. The HEXACO honesty-humility, agreeableness, and emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2014;18(2):139–152.
22. Markus H, Wurf E. The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Ann Rev Psychol. 1987;38:299-337.
23. Fleeson W. Toward a structure- and process-integrated view of personality: Traits as density distributions of states. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2001;80:1011-1027.
24. Fleeson W, Gallagher P. The implications of big-five standing for the distribution of trait manifestation in behavior: Fifteen experience-sampling studies and a meta- analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2009;97:1097-1114.
25. Yao Q, Moskowitz DS. Trait agreeableness and social status moderate behavioral responsiveness to communal behavior. J Pers. 2014;83(2):191-201.
26. Fleeson W, Law MK. Trait enactments as density distributions: The role of actors, situations, and observers in explaining stability and variability. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2015;109(6):1090–1104.
27. Sherman RA, Rauthmann JF, Brown NA, Serfass DG, Jones AB. The independent effects of personality and situations on real-time expressions of behavior and emotion. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2015;109(5):872–888.
28. Wrzus C, Wagner GG, Riediger M. Personality-situation transactions from adolescence to old age. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2016;110(5):782-799.
29. Heller D, Watson D, Komar J, Min J-A, Perunovic WQ. Contextualized personality: Traditional and new assessment procedures. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1229-1254.
30. Todd E, Funder D. Personality correlates of unique perceptions of brief film situations. Poster presented at: Society for Personality and Social Psychology; January, 2012; San Diego, California.
31. Morse PJ, Sauerberger KS, Todd E, Funder DC. Relationships among personality, situational construal, and social outcomes. J Pers. 2015;29:97-106.
32. Morse PJ, Sweeny K, Legg A. A situational construal approach to healthcare experiences. Soc Sci Med, 2015;138:170-178.
33. Zettler I, Hilbig BE. Honesty-humility and a person-situation interaction at work. J Pers. 2010;24(7):569–582.
34. Leikas S, Lönnqvist JE, Verkasalo M. Persons, situations, and behaviors: Consistency and variability of different behaviors in four interpersonal situations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2012;103(6):1007–1022.
35. Simpson B, Willer R. Altruism and indirect reciprocity: The interaction of person and situation in prosocial behavior. Soc Psychol Quart. 2008;71(1):37-52.
36. Bolderdijk JW, Gorsira M, Keizer K, Steg L. Values determine the (in)effectiveness of informational interventions in promoting pro-environmental behavior. PLoS ONE, 2013;8(12).
37. Süssenbach P, Rees J, Gollwitzer M. When the going gets tough, individualizers get going: On the relationship between moral foundations and prosociality. Pers Indiv Diff. 2019;136:122–131.
38. Fowers BJ, Lane AA, Lang SF, Cioffi K, Anderson AR, Cokelet B. Does trait interpersonal fairness moderate situational influence on fairness behavior? Personality Ind Diff, 2022.
39. Gollwitzer M, Rothmund T, Pfeiffer A, Ensenbach C. Why and when justice sensitivity leads to pro- and antisocial behavior. J Res Pers. 2009;43:999-1005.
40. Lotz S, Schlösser T, Cain DM, & Fetchenhaur D. The (in)stability of social preferences: Using justice sensitivity to predict when altruism collapses. J Econ Behav Organ. 2013;93:141-148.
41. Hampson PJ, Hulsey TL, McGarry PP. Moral affordance, moral expertise, and virtue. Theor Psychol. 2021;31(4):513–532.
42. Roberts BW, Wood, D, Smith JL Evaluating Five Factor Theory and social investment perspectives on personality trait development. J Res Pers. 2005;39(1):166–184.
43. Stryker S. Identity theory and personality theory: Mutual relevance. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1083-1102.
44. Roberts BW. Contextualizing personality psychology. J Pers. 2007;75(6):1071-1082.
45. Fowers BJ. The evolution of ethics: Human sociality and the emergence of ethical mindedness. London, England: Palgrave/McMillan.
46. Roberts BW, Damian RI. The principles of personality development and their relation to psychopathology. In: Samuel DB, Lynam DR, eds. Using basic personality research to inform personality pathology. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2019:153-168.
47. Roberts BW, Walton KE, Viechtbauer W. Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol Bull. 2006;132(1):1-25.
48. Lodi-Smith J, Roberts BW. Social Investment and personality: A meta-analysis of the relationship of personality traits to investment in work, family, religion, and volunteerism. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2007;11(1):68-86.
49. McCrae RR, Terracciano A. Personality profiles of cultures: Aggregate personality traits. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2005;89(3):407-425.
50. Lenhart A, Purcell K, Smith A, Zickuhr K. Social media & mobile internet use among teens and young adults. millennials. Pew Internet & American Life Project. 2010; http://pewinternet.org/reports/2010/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx.
51. Klimstra TA, Luyckx K, Branje S, Teppers E, Goossens L, Meeus WHJ. Personality traits, interpersonal identity, and relationship stability: Longitudinal linkages in late adolescence and young adulthood. J Youth Adolesc. 2013;42(11):1661-1673.
52. Hudson NW, Roberts BW. Social investment in work reliably predicts change in conscientiousness and agreeableness: A direct replication and extension of Hudson, Roberts, and Lodi-Smith (2012). J Res Pers. 2016;60:12-23.
53. Hudson NW, Roberts BW, Lodi-Smith J. Personality trait development and social investment in work. J Res Pers, 2012;46(3), 334–344.
54. Bleidorn W, Klimstra TA, Denissen JJ, Rentfrow PJ, Potter J, Gosling SD. Personality maturation around the world: A cross-cultural examination of social-investment theory. Psychol Sci. 2013;24(12): 2530–2540.
55. Bleidorn W. Linking personality states, current social roles and major life goals. Eu Per. 2009;23(6), 509–530.
56. Galdiolo S, Roskam I. Development of personality traits in response to childbirth: A longitudinal dyadic perspective. Pers Indiv Diff. 2014;69:223–230.
57. Van Scheppingen MA, Jackson JJ, Specht J, Hutteman R, Denissen JJ, Bleidorn W. Personality trait development during the transition to parenthood. Soc Psychol Pers Sci. 2016;7(5):452-462.
58. Wee C. Filial obligations: A comparative study. Dao. 2014;13(1):83-97.
59. Darnell C, Fowers BJ, Kristjánsson K. A multifunction approach to assessing Aristotelian phronesis (practical wisdom). Pers Indiv Diff. 2022.
60. Broadie S. Ethics with Aristotle. Oxford University Press. 1991.
61. Del Castillo FA. Virtues in public health: Easing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Public Health. 2021;43(2).
62. Fowers BJ. Virtue and psychology: Pursuing excellence in ordinary practices. Washington, DC:APA Books, 2005.
63. Fowers BJ, Winakur E. Key virtues of the psychotherapist: A eudaimonic view. In S. van Hooft (Ed.), The handbook of virtue ethics (pp. 386-396). Durham, England: Acumen, 2014.
64. Hawking M, Curlin FA, Yoon JD. Courage and compassion: Virtues in caring for so-called “difficult” patients. AMA J Ethics. 2017;19(4):357-363
65. Fowers BJ, Richardson FC, Slife BD. Frailty, suffering, and vice: Flourishing in the face of human limitations. Washington, DC: APA Books, 2017.
66. Garcia JLA. Virtues and principles in biomedical ethics. J Med Phil, 2020;45(4–5):471–503.
67. Begley AM. Truth-telling, honesty and compassion: A virtue-based exploration of a dilemma in practice. Internat J Nurs Prac. 2008;14(5):336–341.
68. Fowers BJ. Psychotherapy, character, and the good life. In B Slife, J Reber, FC Richardson, (Eds.), Critical thinking about psychology: Hidden assumptions and plausible alternatives (pp. 39-59), Washington, DC: APA Books, 2005.