Anger, Irritability, Aggression and Violence: States in search of a diagnostic and treatment ‘home’ Part I – Evolution
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper is the first in a two-part editorial that reviews the current descriptions, relationships between, and etiologies informing, clinical terms such as ‘anger’, ‘irritability’, ‘aggression’ and ‘violence’ (AIAV), as well as the importance of their being properly conceptualized and treated. It draws from seminal academic papers across a range of disciplines including: psychiatry, psychology, sociology, neurobiology, neuroscience, medicine, anthropology, philosophy and politics. Given AIAV’s pervasiveness, as well as its concerning fiscal and psychosocial ramifications worldwide, this editorial highlights the importance to clinicians, researchers and governmental entities of properly understanding, classifying and treating this dire public health issue. While mental disorders may include AIAV, existing diagnostic categories remain unable to capture its pertinent contextual, neurobiological and cognitive components. This leaves clinicians bereft of a knowledge-base that is crucial to treatment. By striving for an overarching, interdisciplinary and ‘transdiagnostic’ paradigm that captures actual scenarios leading to AIAV, it advocates that ‘real-world’ issues (e.g. mass shootings, ‘road rage’, domestic, sexual, and workplace violence) be properly addressed with targeted interventions that have proven clinical utility, It also critiques the applicability of the current DSM ‘mental disorder’ model that dominates clinical practice, and upon which clinicians remain unduly reliant.
Keywords:
Anger, Irritability, Aggression and Violence, diagnostic and treatment, Evolution
Article Details
How to Cite
ANAND, Dr Sumit; ABBAS, Zargham.
Anger, Irritability, Aggression and Violence: States in search of a diagnostic and treatment ‘home’ Part I – Evolution.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 6, june 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/4034>. Date accessed: 15 may 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i6.4034.
Section
Editorial
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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41. Wiggins JL, Briggs-Gowan MJ, Brotman MA, Leibenluft E, Wakschlag LS. Toward a Developmental Nosology for Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder in Early Childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60(3):
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45. Bell E, Malhi GS, Mannie Z, et al. Novel insights into irritability: the relationship between subjective experience, age and mood. BJPsych Open. 2021;7(6):e198. doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1033
46. Ngo N, Isaacowitz DM. Use of context in emotion perception: The role of top-down control, cue type, and perceiver’s age. Emotion. 2015;15:292-302.
47. Havens JF, Marr MC, Hirsch E. Editorial: From Bipolar Disorder to Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: Challenges to Diagnostic and Treatment Specificity in Traumatized Youths. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022 Mar;61(3):364-365
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50. Stringaris A, Goodman R. Longitudinal Outcome of Youth Oppositionality: Irritable, Headstrong, and Hurtful Behaviors Have Distinctive Predictions. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(4):404-412.
51. ;Brotman MA, Kircanski K, Stringaris A, Pine DS, Leibenluft E. Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174(6):520-532
52. Toohey MJ, DiGiuseppe R. Defining and measuring irritability: Construct clarification and differentiation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017; 53:93-108.
53. Richard Y, Tazi N, Frydecka D, Hamid MS, Moustafa AA. A systematic review of neural, cognitive, and clinical studies of anger and aggression. Curr Psychol
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65. Coccaro EF, Fanning JR, Keedy SK, Lee RJ. Social cognition in Intermittent Explosive Disorder and aggression. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;83:140-150
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2. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Costs of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the United States. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2003
3. Mikton CR, Butchart A, Dahlberg LL, Krug EG. Global Status Report on Violence Prevention 2014. Am J Prev Med. 2016;50(5): 652-659. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.007
4. Sumner SA, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, Hillis SD, Klevens J, Houry D. Violence in the United States. JAMA. 2015;314(5):478-488. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.8371
5. Hirschtritt ME, Binder RL. A Reassessment of Blaming Mass Shootings on Mental Illness. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(4):311-312. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0010
6. American Psychiatric Association. (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition). Washington DC American Psychiatric Press.
7. 1Mitchell PB. Bipolar Disorder: The Shift to Overdiagnosis. Can J Psychiatry. 2012; 57(11):659-665.
8. Anand S. Has the DSM Failed? Curr Pract Med Sci Vol 9. Published online August 16, 2022:187-196
9. Lynam DR. Using the five-factor model to assess disordered personality. In: Personality Disorders and the Five-Factor Model of Personality, 3rd Ed. American Psychological Association; 2013:
10. Gore WL, Widiger TA. The DSM-5 dimensional trait model and five-factor models of general personality. J Abnorm Psychol. 2013
11. Williams R. Anger as a Basic Emotion and Its Role in Personality Building and Pathological Growth: The Neuroscientific, Developmental and Clinical Perspectives. Front Psychol. 2017;8
12. Carver CS, Harmon-Jones E. Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychol Bull. 2009;135:183-204
13. Copeland WE, Brotman MA, Costello EJ. Normative Irritability in Youth: Developmental Findings From the Great Smoky Mountains Study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015;54(8):635-642
14. Altman DG, Royston P. The cost of dichotomising continuous variables. BMJ. 2006;332(7549):1080
15. Wakschlag LS, Choi SW, Carter AS, et al.: Defining the developmental parameters of temper loss in early childhood: implications for developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; 53:1099–1108
16. Coccaro EF. Intermittent Explosive Disorder as a Disorder of Impulsive Aggression for DSM-5. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(6):577-588
17. American Psychiatric Association. (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition). Washington DC American Psychiatric Press.
18. American Psychiatric Association. (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition). Washington DC American Psychiatric Press.
19. McLaughlin KA, Green JG, Hwang I, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC. Intermittent Explosive Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(11):1131-1139
20. Fanning, J. R., Coleman, M., Lee, R., & Coccaro, E. F. (2019). Subtypes of aggression in intermittent explosive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 109, 164–172.
21. Anand S. Intermittent explosive disorder and DSM-5: a flawed conceptualization of pathological anger. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2013;47(6):578-579
22. Zapata JP, Palacio JD. Trastorno explosivo intermitente: un diagnóstico controversial. Rev Colomb Psiquiatr. 2016;45(3):214-223
23. Gould TD, Gottesman II. Psychiatric endophenotypes and the development of valid animal models. Genes Brain Behav. 2006;5(2):113-119
24. Van den Berg H. Evaluating the validity of animal models of mental disorder: from modeling syndromes to modeling endophenotypes. Hist Philos Life Sci.2022;44(4):59.
25. Miller GA, Rockstroh B. Endophenotypes in Psychopathology Research: Where Do We Stand? Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2013;9(1):177-213
26. Richard Y, Tazi N, Frydecka D, Hamid MS, Moustafa AA. A systematic review of neural, cognitive, and clinical studies of anger and aggression. Curr Psychol. Published online June 8, 2022
27. Puiu AA, Wudarczyk O, Kohls G, Bzdok D, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K. Meta-analytic evidence for a joint neural mechanism underlying response inhibition and state anger. Hum Brain Mapp. 2020;41(11):3147-3160
28. Rohrmann S, Hodapp V, Schnell K, et al. Das State-Trait-Ärgerausdrucks-Inventar—2 Deutschsprachige Adaptation des State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2) von Charles D. Verlang Hans Huber: Spielberger; 2013.
29. Toohey MJ, DiGiuseppe R. Defining and measuring irritability: Construct clarification and differentiation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017; 53:93-108
30. Deveney CM, Stoddard J, Evans RL, Chavez G, Harney M, Wulff RA. On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. Personal Individ Differ. 2019;144:61-67
31. Vidal-Ribas, P., Brotman, M. A., Valdivieso, I., Leibenluft, E., & Stringaris, A. (2016). The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(7), 556–570
32. Leibenluft E, Stoddard J: The developmental psychopathology of irritability. Dev Psychopathol 2013; 25:1473–1487
33. Amsel A. The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. Psychol Bull. 1958;55:102-119
34. Pacheco J, Garvey MA, Sarampote CS, Cohen ED, Murphy ER, Friedman-Hill SR. Annual Research Review: The contributions of the RDoC research framework on understanding the neurodevelopmental origins, progression, and treatment of mental illnesses. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2022; 63(4):360-376.
35. Berkowitz L. A Different View of Anger: The Cognitive-Neoassociation Conception of the Relation of Anger to Aggression. Aggress Behav. 2012;38(4):322-333.
36. Ramírez JM, Andreu JM. Aggression, and some related psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity) Some comments from a research project. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(3):276-291
37. Wiggins JL, Brotman MA, Adleman NE, et al.: Neural correlates of irritability in disruptive mood dysregulation and bipolar disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2016; 173:722–730
38. Connor DF, Newcorn JH, Saylor KE, et al. Maladaptive Aggression: With a Focus on Impulsive Aggression in Children and Adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2019;29(8):576-591.
39. Brotman MA, Kircanski K, Stringaris A, Pine DS, Leibenluft E. Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174(6):520-532
40. Snaith RP, Taylor CM. Irritability: Definition, Assessment and Associated Factors. Br J Psychiatry. 1985;147(2):127-136
41. Wiggins JL, Briggs-Gowan MJ, Brotman MA, Leibenluft E, Wakschlag LS. Toward a Developmental Nosology for Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder in Early Childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60(3):
42. DiGiuseppe R, Tafrate RC. Anger: Ubiquitous and Intangible. In: DiGiuseppe R, Tafrate RC, eds. Understanding Anger Disorders. Oxford University Press; 2006
43. Toohey MJ, DiGiuseppe R. Defining and measuring irritability: Construct clarification and differentiation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017; 53:93-108. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.01.009
44. Malhi G, Bell E, Outhred T. Getting irritable about irritability? BMJ Ment Health. 2019;22(3):93-94
45. Bell E, Malhi GS, Mannie Z, et al. Novel insights into irritability: the relationship between subjective experience, age and mood. BJPsych Open. 2021;7(6):e198. doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1033
46. Ngo N, Isaacowitz DM. Use of context in emotion perception: The role of top-down control, cue type, and perceiver’s age. Emotion. 2015;15:292-302.
47. Havens JF, Marr MC, Hirsch E. Editorial: From Bipolar Disorder to Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: Challenges to Diagnostic and Treatment Specificity in Traumatized Youths. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022 Mar;61(3):364-365
48. Stringaris A. Irritability in children and adolescents: a challenge for DSM-5. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20(2):61-66 Sukhodolsky DG, Smith SD, McCauley SA, Ibrahim K, Piasecka JB. Behavioral Interventions for Anger, Irritability, and Aggression in Children and Adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacology
49. Stringaris A, Goodman R (2009) Mood lability and psychopathology in youth. Psychol Med 11:1–9
50. Stringaris A, Goodman R. Longitudinal Outcome of Youth Oppositionality: Irritable, Headstrong, and Hurtful Behaviors Have Distinctive Predictions. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(4):404-412.
51. ;Brotman MA, Kircanski K, Stringaris A, Pine DS, Leibenluft E. Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. Am J Psychiatry. 2017;174(6):520-532
52. Toohey MJ, DiGiuseppe R. Defining and measuring irritability: Construct clarification and differentiation. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017; 53:93-108.
53. Richard Y, Tazi N, Frydecka D, Hamid MS, Moustafa AA. A systematic review of neural, cognitive, and clinical studies of anger and aggression. Curr Psychol
54. Berkowitz L, Harmon-Jones E. Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger. Emot Wash DC. 2004;4:107-130
55. Fava M. Depression with anger attacks. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59 Suppl 18:18-22
56. Mammen OK, Shear MK, Pilkonis PA, Kolko DJ, Thase ME, Greeno CG. Anger attacks: correlates and significance of an underrecognized symptom. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(9)
57. Manfredi P, Taglietti C. A psychodynamic contribution to the understanding of anger - The importance of diagnosis before treatment. Res Psychother Psychopathol Process Outcome. 2022;25(2)
58. Spielberger CD. State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory. In: The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2010:1-1.
59. Deffenbacher JL, Oetting ER, Thwaites GA, et al. State–Trait Anger Theory and the utility of the Trait Anger Scale. J Couns Psychol. 1996
60. Ekman P, Levenson RW, Friesen WV. Autonomic Nervous System Activity Distinguishes Among Emotions. Science. 1983;221(4616):1208-1210
61. Crick NR, Dodge KA. A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychol Bull. 1994;115:74-101.
62. Bandura A, Ross D, Ross SA. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1961;63:575-582.
63. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51.
64. Deveney CM, Stoddard J, Evans RL, Chavez G, Harney M, Wulff RA. On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. Personal Individ Differ. 2019;144:61-67
65. Coccaro EF, Fanning JR, Keedy SK, Lee RJ. Social cognition in Intermittent Explosive Disorder and aggression. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;83:140-150
66. Barata PC, Holtzman S, Cunningham S, O’Connor BP, Stewart DE. Building a Definition of Irritability From Academic Definitions and Lay Descriptions. Emot Rev. 2016;8(2):164-172.
67. Geen RG. 2001. Human Aggression. Taylor & Francis. 2nd ed
68. Ramírez JM, Andreu JM. Aggression, and some related psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity) Some comments from a research project. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(3):276-291
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