The Impact of COVID-19 on Social Anxiety and Rejection Sensitivity
Main Article Content
Abstract
The following study explores the potential impact of COVID-19 on Social Anxiety and Rejection Sensitivity among college students. Over 300 college students completed a survey asking about whether they had contracted COVID-19, and, if they had, additional characteristics (i.e., when they contracted the disease, whether they were symptomatic, whether their symptoms were neurological, how many times they had contracted COVID-19). In addition, they indicated their current levels of Social Anxiety and Rejection Sensitivity, as well as general classroom anxiety. Lastly, participants indicated whether they had been formally diagnosed with related psychological disorders (autism, ADHD, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, rejection sensitivity dysphoria), as well as roughly when they had been diagnosed. Approximately half of the sample reported that they had contracted COVID-19 at least once, and approximately one third of the total sample had been previously diagnosed with anxiety. Results indicated that about one third of those who contracted COVID-19 indicated increases in anxiety or depression post-COVID-19. In addition, females in reported higher Social Anxiety and general classroom anxiety. Results did find that there were higher amounts of Social Anxiety and classroom anxiety among those who had been diagnosed with COVID-19 more recently, these results were no longer significant after controlling for previously diagnosed mental illness. There were otherwise no significant relationships between any aspects of contracting COVID-19 and Social Anxiety, rejection sensitivity, or classroom anxiety. This indicates that while students are reporting increased anxiety and depression, and while recently diagnosed COVID-19 does contribute to Social Anxiety and classroom anxiety, that these increases are likely due to the stress of being ill rather than the virus itself.
Article Details
How to Cite
POWELL, Dr. Caitlin; MARTIN, Dr. Kaitlin Vollet.
The Impact of COVID-19 on Social Anxiety and Rejection Sensitivity.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 7.1, july 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/4046>. Date accessed: 16 may 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i7.1.4046.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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38. Moldofsky H, Patcai J. Chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, depression and disordered sleep in chronic post-SARS syndrome; a case-controlled study. BMC Neurology. 2011;11:37. doi: 10.1186/1471-2377-11-37
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doi: 10.1159/000414022
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doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.70.6.1327
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46. Kessler RC. Epidemiology of women and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2003;74(1):5-13. doi: 10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00426-3
47. Wang XA-O, Hegde SA-O, Son CA-OX, Keller BA-O, Smith AA-O, Sasangohar FA-O. Investigating Mental Health of US College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-Sectional Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020(1438-8871). doi: 10.2196/22817
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49. Deng J, Zhou F, Hou W, et al. The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances in COVID-19 patients: a meta-analysis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2021;1486(1):90-111.
doi: 10.1111/nyas.14506
50. Xie Y, Xu E, Al-Aly Z. Risks of mental health outcomes in people with covid-19: cohort study. The British Medical Journal. 2022;376:e068993. doi: 10.1136/bmj-2021-068993
51. Kyzar EJ, Purpura LJ, Shah J, Cantos A, Nordvig AS, Yin MT. Anxiety, depression, insomnia, and trauma-related symptoms following COVID-19 infection at long-term follow-up. Brain, Behavior, & Immunity Health. 2021;16:100315. doi: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100315
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6. Hawes MT, Szenczy AK, Klein DN, Hajcak G, Nelson BD. Increases in depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescents and young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Medicine. 2022;52(14):3222-3230. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720005358
7. Lee J, Solomon M, Stead T, Kwon B, Ganti L. Impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of US college students. BMC Psychological. 2021;9(1):95. doi: 10.1186/s40359-021-00598-3
8. Dongol E, Shaker K, Abbas A, et al. Sleep quality, stress level and COVID-19 in university students; the forgotten dimension. Sleep Science. 2022;15(Spec 2):347-354. doi: 10.5935/1984-0063.20210011
9. Son C, Hegde S, Smith A, Wang X, Sasangohar F. Effects of COVID-19 on College Students' Mental Health in the United States: Interview Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020;22(9):e21279.
doi: 10.2196/21279
10. Solmi MA-O, Radua J, Olivola M, et al. Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry. 2022(1476-5578). doi: 10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7
11. Arain M, Haque M, Johal L, et al. Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2013;9:449-461. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S39776
12. Riecher-Rossler A. Sex and gender differences in mental disorders. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017;4(1):8-9. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30348-0
13. Vallieres F, Murphy J, McBride O, et al. The role of psychosocial factors in explaining sex differences in major depression and generalized anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1):1563. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-13954-8
14. Maslakçı AA-O, Sürücü LA-O. Gender Effects on Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Regarding the Fear of COVID-19. Trends in Psychology. 2022(2358-1883). doi: 10.1007/s43076-022-00227-x
15. Garcia-Fernandez L, Romero-Ferreiro V, Padilla S, David Lopez-Roldan P, Monzo-Garcia M, Rodriguez-Jimenez R. Gender differences in emotional response to the COVID-19 outbreak in Spain. Brain Behavior. 2021;11(1):e01934. doi: 10.1002/brb3.1934
16. Kundakovic M, Rocks D. Sex hormone fluctuation and increased female risk for depression and anxiety disorders: From clinical evidence to molecular mechanisms. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 2022;66:101010. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101010
17. Zwar L, Konig HH, Hajek A. Gender Differences in Mental Health, Quality of Life, and Caregiver Burden among Informal Caregivers during the Second Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany: A Representative, Population-Based Study. Gerontology. 2023;69(2):149-162.
doi: 10.1159/000523846
18. Liu H, Zhang M, Yang Q, Yu B. Gender differences in the influence of social isolation and loneliness on depressive symptoms in college students: a longitudinal study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2020;55(2):251-257. doi: 10.1007/s00127-019-01726-6
19. Clair R, Gordon M, Kroon M, Reilly C. The effects of social isolation on well-being and life satisfaction during pandemic. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2021;8(1):28. doi: 10.1057/s41599-021-00710-3
20. Spatafora F, Matos Fialho PM, Busse HA-O, et al. Fear of Infection and Depressive Symptoms among German University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of COVID-19 International Student Well-Being Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022(1660-4601). doi: 10.3390/ijerph19031659
21. Chen CA-O, Tang SA-O. Profiles of grief, post-traumatic stress, and post-traumatic growth among people bereaved due to COVID-19. The European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 2021(2000-8066).
doi: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1947563
22. Hertz-Palmor N, Moore TM, Gothelf D, et al. Association among income loss, financial strain and depressive symptoms during COVID-19: Evidence from two longitudinal studies. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2021(1573-2517). doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.054
23. Yang CA-O, Chen A, Chen Y. College students' stress and health in the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of academic workload, separation from school, and fears of contagion. PLOS One. 2021(1932-6203).
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246676
24. Olfert MD, Wattick RA, Saurborn EG, Hagedorn RL. Impact of COVID-19 on college student diet quality and physical activity. Nutrition and Health. 2022;28(4):721-731. doi: 10.1177/02601060221086772
25. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Post COVID-19 condition. 2023.
26. Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol EJ. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2023;21(3):133-146.
doi: 10.1038/s41579-022-00846-2
27. CDC. Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions. 2022; https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/index.html.
28. Vyas A, Raja Panwar V, Mathur V, et al. Mild cognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: Measuring the brain fog. International Journal of Mental Health. 2022;51(2):142-151. doi: 10.1080/00207411.2021.1988402
29. Taquet M, Geddes JR, Husain M, Luciano S, Harrison PJ. 6-month neurological and psychiatric outcomes in 236 379 survivors of COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study using electronic health records. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021;8(5):416-427. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00084-5
30. Vanderheiden A, Klein RS. Neuroinflammation and COVID-19. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2022;76:102608.
31. Richardson BN, Noh HI, Webster CI, et al. Oral Microbiome, Mental Health, and Sleep Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Observational Study in Chinese and Korean American Immigrants. OMICS. 2023;27(4):180-190.
32. Boldrini M, Canoll PD, Klein RS. How COVID-19 Affects the Brain. JAMA Psychiatry. 2021;78(6):682-683.
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0500
33. Krasemann S, Haferkamp U, Pfefferle S, et al. The blood-brain barrier is dysregulated in COVID-19 and serves as a CNS entry route for SARS-CoV-2. Stem Cell Reports. 2022(2213-6711). doi: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.12.011
34. Hanson BA, Visvabharathy L, Ali ST, et al. Plasma Biomarkers of Neuropathogenesis in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 and Those With Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Neurology: Neuroimmunology and NeuroInflammation. 2022;9(3).
doi: 10.1212/NXI.0000000000001151
35. Bispo DDC, Brandao PRP, Pereira DA, et al. Brain microstructural changes and fatigue after COVID-19. Frontiers in Neurology. 2022;13:1029302.
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2022.1029302
36. Hafiz R, Gandhi TK, Mishra S, et al. Higher limbic and basal ganglia volumes in surviving COVID-negative patients and the relations to fatigue. Neuroimage Reports. 2022;2(2):100095.
doi: 10.1101/2021.11.23.21266761
37. Redlich R, Opel N, Burger C, et al. The Limbic System in Youth Depression: Brain Structural and Functional Alterations in Adolescent In-patients with Severe Depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(3):546-554. doi: 10.1038/npp.2017.246.
38. Moldofsky H, Patcai J. Chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, depression and disordered sleep in chronic post-SARS syndrome; a case-controlled study. BMC Neurology. 2011;11:37. doi: 10.1186/1471-2377-11-37
39. Scieszka J, Dabek J, Cieslik P. Post-Lyme disease syndrome. Reumatologia. 2015;53(1):46-48.
doi: 0.5114/reum.2015.50557
40. Vallings R. A case of chronic fatigue syndrome triggered by influenza H1N1 (swine influenza). Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2010(1472-4146). doi: 10.1136/jcp.2009.071944
41. Gupta S, Biswas A, Chandra A, Ray BK, Dutta A, Pandit A. Post-Varicella Neurological Complications: A Preliminary Observation from a Tertiary Care Centre of Eastern India. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology. 2022(0972-2327). doi: 10.4103/aian.aian_270_21
42. Liebowitz M. Liebowitz Social Phobia Scale. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry. 1987(22):143-171.
doi: 10.1159/000414022
43. Downey G, Feldman SI. Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1996;70(6):1327-1343.
doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.70.6.1327
44. Lipson SK, Zhou S, Abelson S, et al. Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national healthy minds study, 2013–2021. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2022;306:138-147.
45. Hantsoo L, Epperson CN. Anxiety Disorders Among Women: A Female Lifespan Approach. American Psychiatric Publications. 2017(1541-4094). doi: 10.1176/appi.focus.20160042
46. Kessler RC. Epidemiology of women and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2003;74(1):5-13. doi: 10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00426-3
47. Wang XA-O, Hegde SA-O, Son CA-OX, Keller BA-O, Smith AA-O, Sasangohar FA-O. Investigating Mental Health of US College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-Sectional Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020(1438-8871). doi: 10.2196/22817
48. Mazza MA-O, Palladini M, Poletti S, Benedetti F. Post-COVID-19 Depressive Symptoms: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacological Treatment. (1179-1934).
49. Deng J, Zhou F, Hou W, et al. The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances in COVID-19 patients: a meta-analysis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2021;1486(1):90-111.
doi: 10.1111/nyas.14506
50. Xie Y, Xu E, Al-Aly Z. Risks of mental health outcomes in people with covid-19: cohort study. The British Medical Journal. 2022;376:e068993. doi: 10.1136/bmj-2021-068993
51. Kyzar EJ, Purpura LJ, Shah J, Cantos A, Nordvig AS, Yin MT. Anxiety, depression, insomnia, and trauma-related symptoms following COVID-19 infection at long-term follow-up. Brain, Behavior, & Immunity Health. 2021;16:100315. doi: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100315