Primary treatment of Graves’ disease: Comparison of radioiodine and antithyroid drugs.
Main Article Content
Abstract
Abstract
Thyrotoxicosis is a common condition, most frequently due to an autoimmune aetiology (Graves’ disease). There are three treatment options, antithyroid drugs (ATD), radioactive iodine (RI) or thyroidectomy, each with their own benefits and short-comings. Classically surgery is only used as primary treatment of Graves’ disease in patients with compressive symptoms or for cosmetic reasons with the majority of patients treated primarily with either RI or ATD. In this review I will discuss and compare these two treatment modalities (RI and ATD), focussing on efficacy, safety, side-effects, cost and quality of life. Graves’ orbitopathy (GO) is a rare, but potentially sight-threatening orbital manifestation of Graves’ disease and the relationship between ATD, RI and GO is also discussed. ATD are the only treatment modality presently available to have beneficial effects on the autoimmune aetiology by reducing TSH receptor antibody titre. I discuss novel agents which may have utility in the future. In conclusion, RI and ATD are both appropriate primary treatment modalities. Further research is require to identify more effective treatments aimed at ameliorating the autoimmune aetiology of Graves’ disease.
Article Details
How to Cite
WALLACE, Ian Robert.
Primary treatment of Graves’ disease: Comparison of radioiodine and antithyroid drugs..
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 2, n. 5, nov. 2015.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/410>. Date accessed: 27 dec. 2024.
Keywords
Graves’ disease; Hyperthyroidism; Radioactive iodine; Methimazole; Carbimazole; Propylthiouracil; Graves’ orbitopathy
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
References
Abraham-Nordling M, Torring O, Hamberger B, Lundell G, Tallstedt L, Calissendorff J, Wallin G Graves' disease: a long-term quality-of-life follow up of patients randomized to treatment with antithyroid drugs, radioiodine, or surgery. Thyroid (2005) 15(11):1279-1286.
Acharya SH, Avenell A, Philip S, Burr J, Bevan JS, Abraham P Radioiodine therapy (RAI) for Graves' disease (GD) and the effect on ophthalmopathy: a systematic review. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 69(6):943-950.
Alexander EK, Larsen PR High dose of (131)I therapy for the treatment of hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2002) 87(3):1073-1077.
Andrade VA, Gross JL, Maia AL The effect of methimazole pretreatment on the efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2001) 86(8):3488-3493.
Arab DM, Malatjalian DA, Rittmaster RS Severe cholestatic jaundice in uncomplicated hyperthyroidism treated with methimazole. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1995) 80(4):1083-1085.
Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee MC, Klein I, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Montori VM, Rivkees SA, Ross DS, Sosa JA, Stan MN, American Thyroid Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid (2011) 21(6):593-646.
Bahn RS, Burch HS, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee CM, Klein IL, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Rivkees SA, Ross D, Sosa JA, Stan MN The Role of Propylthiouracil in the Management of Graves' Disease in Adults: report of a meeting jointly sponsored by the American Thyroid Association and the Food and Drug Administration. Thyroid (2009) 19(7):673-674.
Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson A, Eckstein A, Kendall-
Taylor P, Marcocci C, Mourits M, Perros P, Boboridis K, Boschi A, Curro N, Daumerie C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Lane CM, Lazarus JH, Marino M, Nardi M, Neoh C, Orgiazzi J, Pearce S, Pinchera A, Pitz S, Salvi M, Sivelli P, Stahl M, von Arx G, Wiersinga WM, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) Consensus statement of the European Group on Graves' orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of GO. European Journal of Endocrinology (2008a) 158(3):273-285.
Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson AJ, Eckstein A, Kendall-Taylor P, Marcocci C, Mourits MP, Perros P, Boboridis K, Boschi A, Curro N, Daumerie C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas G, Lane CM, Lazarus JH, Marino M, Nardi M, Neoh C, Orgiazzi J, Pearce S, Pinchera A, Pitz S, Salvi M, Sivelli P, Stahl M, von Arx G, Wiersinga WM Consensus statement of the European group on Graves' orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of Graves' orbitopathy. Thyroid (2008b) 18(3):333-346.
Bartalena L, Krassas GE, Wiersinga W, Marcocci C, Salvi M, Daumerie C, Bournaud C, Stahl M, Sassi L, Veronesi G, Azzolini C, Boboridis KG, Mourits MP, Soeters MR, Baldeschi L, Nardi M, Curro N, Boschi A, Bernard M, von Arx G, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy Efficacy and safety of three different cumulative doses of intravenous methylprednisolone for moderate to severe and active Graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(12):4454-4463.
Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Manetti L, Tanda ML, Dell'Unto E, Bruno-Bossio G, Nardi M, Bartolomei MP, Lepri A, Rossi G, Martino E, Pinchera A Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (1998) 338(2):73-78.
Bartalena L, Tanda ML Clinical practice. Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (2009) 360(10):994-1001.
Bartalena L Grave’s orbitopathy: imperfect treatments for a rare disease. European Thyroid Journal (2013) 2:259-269.
Bartalena L, Burch HB, Burman KD, Kahaly GJ A 2013 European survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. Clin.Endocrinol.(Oxf) (2015) :doi: 10.1111/cen.12688.
Bartalena L Diagnosis and management of Graves disease: a global overview. Nature Reviews Endocrinology (2013) 9(12):724-734.
Bartalena L The dilemma of how to manage Graves' hyperthyroidism in patients with associated orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2011) 96(3):592-599.
Baskin HJ, Cobin RH, Duick DS, Gharib H, Guttler RB, Kaplan MM, Segal RL, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocrine Practice (2002) 8(6):457-469.
Berg GE, Nystrom EH, Jacobsson L, Lindberg S, Lindstedt RG, Mattsson S, Niklasson CA, Noren AH, Westphal OG Radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism in a pregnant women. Journal of Nuclear Medicine (1998) 39(2):357-361.
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Scarcello G, Burelli A, Campomori A, Manetti L, Rossi G, Pinchera A, Martino E Comparison of radioiodine with radioiodine plus lithium in the treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1999) 84(2):499-503.
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Campomori A, Brogioni S, Traino C, De Martino F, Rossi G, Lippi F, Pinchera A, Martino E Treatment with lithium prevents serum thyroid hormone increase after thionamide withdrawal and radioiodine therapy in patients with Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2002) 87(10):4490-4495.
Bogazzi F, Giovannetti C, Fessehatsion R, Tanda ML, Campomori A, Compri E, Rossi G, Ceccarelli C, Vitti P, Pinchera A, Bartalena L, Martino E Impact of lithium on efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy for Graves' disease: a cohort study on cure rate, time to cure, and frequency of increased serum thyroxine after antithyroid drug withdrawal. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2010) 95(1):201-208.
Bonnema SJ, Bennedbaek FN, Veje A, Marving J, Hegedus L Propylthiouracil before 131I therapy of hyperthyroid diseases: effect on cure rate evaluated by a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2004) 89(9):4439-4444.
Braga M, Walpert N, Burch HB, Solomon BL, Cooper DS The effect of methimazole on cure rates after radioiodine treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a randomized clinical trial. Thyroid (2002) 12(2):135-139.
Burch HB, Burman KD, Cooper DS A 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(12):4549-4558.
Chen DY, Schneider PF, Zhang XS, Luo XY, He ZM, Chen TH Changes in Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine and antithyroid drug treatment of Graves' disease from two prospective, randomized, open-label, blinded end-point studies. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology and Diabetes (2014) 122:1-6.
Connell JM, Hilditch TE, McCruden DC, Robertson J, Alexander WD Effect of pretreatment with carbimazole on early outcome following radio-iodine (131I) therapy. Eur J Nucl Med (1984) 9(10):464-466.
Cooper DS Hyperthyroidism. Lancet (2003) 362(9382):459-468.
Cooper DS The side-effects of antithyroid drugs. The Endocrinologist (1999) 9:457-476.
De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, Amino N, Barbour L, Cobin RH, Eastman CJ, Lazarus JH, Luton D, Mandel SJ, Mestman J, Rovet J, Sullivan S Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(8):2543-2565.
Dolman PJ, Rootman J VISA Classification for Graves orbitopathy. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery (2006) 22(5):319-324.
El-Kaissi S, Frauman AG, Wall JR Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: a practical guide to classification, natural history and management. Intern Med J (2004) 34(8):482-491.
Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard MC, Betteridge J, Boyle P Mortality after the treatment of hyperthyroidism with radioactive iodine. N Engl J Med (1998) 338(11):712-718.
Franklyn JA, Sheppard MC, Maisonneuve P Thyroid function and mortality in patients treated for hyperthyroidism. JAMA (2005) 294(1):71-80.
Garsi JP, Schlumberger M, Rubino C, Ricard M, Labbe M, Ceccarelli C, Schvartz C, Henri-Amar M, Bardet S, de Vathaire F Therapeutic administration of 131I for differentiated thyroid cancer: radiation dose to ovaries and outcome of pregnancies. Journal of Nuclear Medicine (2008) 49(5):845-852.
Hancock LD, Tuttle RM, LeMar H, Bauman J, Patience T The effect of propylthiouracil on subsequent radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1997) 47(4):425-430.
Hyer S, Vini L, O'Connell M, Pratt B, Harmer C Testicular dose and fertility in men following I(131) therapy for thyroid cancer. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2002) 56(6):755-758.
Koroscil TM Thionamides alter the efficacy of radioiodine treatment in patients with Graves' disease. South Med J (1995) 88(8):831-836.
Lai A, Sassi L, Compri E, Marino F, Sivelli P, Piantanida E, Tanda ML, Bartalena L Lower dose prednisone prevents radioiodine-associated exacerbation of initially mild or absent graves' orbitopathy: a retrospective cohort study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2010) 95(3):1333-1337.
Laurberg P, Wallin G, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, Lundell G, Torring O TSH-receptor autoimmunity in Graves' disease after therapy with anti-thyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: a 5-year prospective randomized study. European Journal of Endocrinology (2008) 158(1):69-75.
Lazarus JH Lithium and thyroid. Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 23(6):723-733.
Leary AC, Grealy G, Higgins TM, Buckley N, Barry DG, Murphy D, Ferriss JB Long-term outcomes of treatment of hyperthyroidism in Ireland. Ir J Med Sci (1999) 168(1):47-52.
Leslie WD, Ward L, Salamon EA, Ludwig S, Rowe RC, Cowden EA A randomized comparison of radioiodine doses in Graves' hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2003) 88(3):978-983.
Lewis A, Rea T, Atkinson B, Bell P, Courtney H, McCance D, Mullan K, Hunter S Outcome of 131I therapy in hyperthyroidism using a 550MBq fixed dose regimen. Ulster Medical Journal (2013) 82:85-88.
Ljunggren JG, Torring O, Wallin G, Taube A, Tallstedt L, Hamberger B, Lundell G Quality of life aspects and costs in treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: results from a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid (1998) 8(8):653-659.
Mao XM, Li HQ, Li Q, Li DM, Xie XJ, Yin GP, Zhang P, Xu XH, Wu JD, Chen SW, Wang SK Prevention of relapse of Graves' disease by treatment with an intrathyroid injection of dexamethasone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(12):4984-4991.
Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, Altea MA, Nardi M, Pitz S, Boboridis K, Sivelli P, von Arx G, Mourits MP, Baldeschi L, Bencivelli W, Wiersinga W, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med (2011) 364(20):1920-1931.
Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Panicucci M, Bruno-Bossio G, Lepri A, Pinchera A Radioiodine treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism and progression of ophthalmopathy: protective effect of systemic corticosteroids. Acta Endocrinologica (1989) 121:145-148.
Martin NM, Patel M, Nijher GM, Misra S, Murphy E, Meeran K Adjuvant lithium improves the efficacy of radioactive iodine treatment in Graves' and toxic nodular disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2012) 77(4):621-627.
Metso S, Auvinen A, Salmi J, Huhtala H, Jaatinen P Increased long-term cardiovascular morbidity among patients treated with radioactive iodine for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 68(3):450-457.
Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, Auvinen A, Oksala H, Salmi J Increased cardiovascular and cancer mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2007) 92(6):2190-2196.
Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, Luukkaala T, Oksala H, Salmi J Long-term follow-up study of radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2004) 61(5):641-648.
Noh JY, Yasuda S, Sato S, Matsumoto M, Kunii Y, Noguchi Y, Mukasa K, Ito K, Ito K, Sugiyama O, Kobayashi H, Nihojima S, Okazaki M, Yokoyama S Clinical characteristics of myeloperoxidase antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis caused by antithyroid drugs. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(8):2806-2811.
Nyirenda MJ, Clark DN, Finlayson AR, Read J, Elders A, Bain M, Fox KA, Toft AD Thyroid disease and increased cardiovascular risk. Thyroid (2005) 15(7):718-724.
Patel NN, Abraham P, Buscombe J, Vanderpump MP The cost effectiveness of treatment modalities for thyrotoxicosis in a U.K. center. Thyroid (2006) 16(6):593-598.
Pearce SH Spontaneous reporting of adverse reactions to carbimazole and propylthiouracil in the UK. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2004) 61(5):589-594.
Perros P, Crombie AL, Kendall-Taylor P Natural history of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1995) 42(1):45-50.
Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C, Frewin S, Dickinson J A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active graves' ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2005) 90(9):5321-5323.
Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H Treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with radioiodine: results of a prospective randomized study. Thyroid (1997) 7(2):247-251.
Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H Radioiodine therapy of Graves' hyperthyroidism: standard vs. calculated 131iodine activity. Results from a prospective, randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Clin Invest (1995) 25(3):186-193.
Piantanida E, Lai A, Sassi L, Gallo D, Spreafico E, Tanda ML, Bartalena L Outcome prediction of treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs. Hormone and Metabolic Research (2015) :doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1555759.
Prummel MF, Mourits MP, Berghout A, Krenning EP, van der Gaag R, Koornneef L, Wiersinga WM Prednisone and cyclosporine in the treatment of severe Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (1989) 321(20):1353-1359.
Read CH Jr, Tansey MJ, Menda Y A 36-year retrospective analysis of the efficacy and safety of radioactive iodine in treating young Graves' patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2004) 89(9):4229-4233.
Ron E, Doody MM, Becker DV, Brill AB, Curtis RE, Goldman MB, Harris BS 3rd, Hoffman DA, McConahey WM, Maxon HR, Preston-Martin S, Warshauer ME, Wong FL, Boice JD Jr Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. Cooperative Thyrotoxicosis Therapy Follow-up Study Group. JAMA (1998) 280(4):347-355.
Ross DS Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med (2011) 364(6):542-550.
Sabri O, Zimny M, Schulz G, Schreckenberger M, Reinartz P, Willmes K, Buell U Success rate of radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease: the influence of thyrostatic medication. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1999) 84(4):1229-1233.
Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Beck-Peccoz P Potential utility of rituximab for Graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(11):4291-4299.
Santos RB, Romaldini JH, Ward LS Propylthiouracil reduces the effectiveness of radioiodine treatment in hyperthyroid patients with Graves' disease. Thyroid (2004) 14(7):525-530.
Shabtai R, Shapiro MS, Orenstein D, Taragan R, Shenkman
L The antithyroid arthritis syndrome reviewed. Arthritis & Rheumatism (1984) 27(2):227-229.
Shiber S, Stiebel-Kalish H, Shimon I, Grossman A, Robenshtok E Glucocorticoid regimens for prevention of Graves' ophthalmopathy progression following radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid (2014) 24(10):1515-1523.
Shivaprasad C, Prasanna Kumar KM Long-term carbimazole pretreatment reduces the efficacy of radioiodine therapy. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2015) 19(1):84-88.
Sundaresh V, Brito JP, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, Stan MN, Murad MH, Bahn RS Comparative effectiveness of therapies for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(9):3671-3677.
Tajiri J, Noguchi S Antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: special reference to normal white blood cell count agranulocytosis. Thyroid (2004) 14(6):459-462.
Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Blomgren H, Bring J Does early administration of thyroxine reduce the development of Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine treatment?. European Journal of Endocrinology (1994) 130(5):494-497.
Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, Wallin G, Ljunggren JG, Blomgren H, Taube A Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med (1992) 326(26):1733-1738.
Tanda ML, Bartalena L Efficacy and safety of orbital radiotherapy for graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(11):3857-3865.
Tanda ML, Piantanida E, Liparulo L, Veronesi G, Lai A, Sassi L, Pariani N, Gallo D, Azzolini C, Ferrario M, Bartalena L Prevalence and natural history of Graves' orbitopathy in a large series of patients with newly diagnosed graves' hyperthyroidism seen at a single center. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(4):1443-1449.
Torring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G, Lundell G, Ljunggren JG, Taube A, Saaf M, Hamberger B Graves' hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine--a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid Study Group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1996a) 81(8):2986-2993.
Torring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G, Lundell G, Ljunggren JG, Taube A, Saaf M, Hamberger B Graves' hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine--a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid Study Group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1996b) 81(8):2986-2993.
Totterman TH, Karlsson FA, Bengtsson M, Mendel-Hartvig I Induction of circulating activated suppressor-like T cells by methimazole therapy for Graves' disease. N Engl J Med (1987) 316(1):15-22.
Traisk F, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, Andersson T, Berg G, Calissendorff J, Hallengren B, Hedner P, Lantz M, Nystrom E, Ponjavic V, Taube A, Torring O, Wallin G, Asman P, Lundell G, Thyroid Study Group of TT 96 Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(10):3700-3707.
Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, Evans JG, Young E, Bird T, Smith PA The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1977) 7(6):481-493.
Vaidya B, Williams GR, Abraham P, Pearce SH Radioiodine treatment for benign thyroid disorders: results of a nationwide survey of UK endocrinologists. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 68(5):814-820.
Vini L, Hyer S, Al-Saadi A, Pratt B, Harmer C Prognosis for fertility and ovarian function after treatment with radioiodine for thyroid cancer. Postgrad Med J (2002) 78(916):92-93.
Walter MA, Briel M, Christ-Crain M, Bonnema SJ, Connell J, Cooper DS, Bucher HC, Muller-Brand J, Muller B Effects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ (2007) 334(7592):514.
Wang PW, Luo SF, Huang BY, Lin JD, Huang MJ Depressed natural killer activity in Graves' disease and during antithyroid medication. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1988) 28(2):205-214.
Wartofsky L, Glinoer D, Solomon B, Nagataki S, Lagasse R, Nagayama Y, Izumi M Differences and similarities in the diagnosis and treatment of Graves' disease in Europe, Japan, and the United States. Thyroid (1991) 1(2):129-135.
Werner SC Classification of the eye changes of Graves' disease. Am J Ophthalmol (1969) 68(4):646-648.
Working Party (2007) Radioiodine in the management of benign thyroid disease. Clinical guidelines. Report of a working party.The Royal College of Physicians, London.
Abraham-Nordling M, Torring O, Hamberger B, Lundell G, Tallstedt L, Calissendorff J, Wallin G Graves' disease: a long-term quality-of-life follow up of patients randomized to treatment with antithyroid drugs, radioiodine, or surgery. Thyroid (2005) 15(11):1279-1286.
Acharya SH, Avenell A, Philip S, Burr J, Bevan JS, Abraham P Radioiodine therapy (RAI) for Graves' disease (GD) and the effect on ophthalmopathy: a systematic review. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 69(6):943-950.
Alexander EK, Larsen PR High dose of (131)I therapy for the treatment of hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2002) 87(3):1073-1077.
Andrade VA, Gross JL, Maia AL The effect of methimazole pretreatment on the efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2001) 86(8):3488-3493.
Arab DM, Malatjalian DA, Rittmaster RS Severe cholestatic jaundice in uncomplicated hyperthyroidism treated with methimazole. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1995) 80(4):1083-1085.
Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee MC, Klein I, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Montori VM, Rivkees SA, Ross DS, Sosa JA, Stan MN, American Thyroid Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid (2011) 21(6):593-646.
Bahn RS, Burch HS, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee CM, Klein IL, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Rivkees SA, Ross D, Sosa JA, Stan MN The Role of Propylthiouracil in the Management of Graves' Disease in Adults: report of a meeting jointly sponsored by the American Thyroid Association and the Food and Drug Administration. Thyroid (2009) 19(7):673-674.
Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson A, Eckstein A, Kendall-
Taylor P, Marcocci C, Mourits M, Perros P, Boboridis K, Boschi A, Curro N, Daumerie C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Lane CM, Lazarus JH, Marino M, Nardi M, Neoh C, Orgiazzi J, Pearce S, Pinchera A, Pitz S, Salvi M, Sivelli P, Stahl M, von Arx G, Wiersinga WM, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) Consensus statement of the European Group on Graves' orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of GO. European Journal of Endocrinology (2008a) 158(3):273-285.
Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson AJ, Eckstein A, Kendall-Taylor P, Marcocci C, Mourits MP, Perros P, Boboridis K, Boschi A, Curro N, Daumerie C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas G, Lane CM, Lazarus JH, Marino M, Nardi M, Neoh C, Orgiazzi J, Pearce S, Pinchera A, Pitz S, Salvi M, Sivelli P, Stahl M, von Arx G, Wiersinga WM Consensus statement of the European group on Graves' orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of Graves' orbitopathy. Thyroid (2008b) 18(3):333-346.
Bartalena L, Krassas GE, Wiersinga W, Marcocci C, Salvi M, Daumerie C, Bournaud C, Stahl M, Sassi L, Veronesi G, Azzolini C, Boboridis KG, Mourits MP, Soeters MR, Baldeschi L, Nardi M, Curro N, Boschi A, Bernard M, von Arx G, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy Efficacy and safety of three different cumulative doses of intravenous methylprednisolone for moderate to severe and active Graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(12):4454-4463.
Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Manetti L, Tanda ML, Dell'Unto E, Bruno-Bossio G, Nardi M, Bartolomei MP, Lepri A, Rossi G, Martino E, Pinchera A Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (1998) 338(2):73-78.
Bartalena L, Tanda ML Clinical practice. Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (2009) 360(10):994-1001.
Bartalena L Grave’s orbitopathy: imperfect treatments for a rare disease. European Thyroid Journal (2013) 2:259-269.
Bartalena L, Burch HB, Burman KD, Kahaly GJ A 2013 European survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. Clin.Endocrinol.(Oxf) (2015) :doi: 10.1111/cen.12688.
Bartalena L Diagnosis and management of Graves disease: a global overview. Nature Reviews Endocrinology (2013) 9(12):724-734.
Bartalena L The dilemma of how to manage Graves' hyperthyroidism in patients with associated orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2011) 96(3):592-599.
Baskin HJ, Cobin RH, Duick DS, Gharib H, Guttler RB, Kaplan MM, Segal RL, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocrine Practice (2002) 8(6):457-469.
Berg GE, Nystrom EH, Jacobsson L, Lindberg S, Lindstedt RG, Mattsson S, Niklasson CA, Noren AH, Westphal OG Radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism in a pregnant women. Journal of Nuclear Medicine (1998) 39(2):357-361.
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Scarcello G, Burelli A, Campomori A, Manetti L, Rossi G, Pinchera A, Martino E Comparison of radioiodine with radioiodine plus lithium in the treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1999) 84(2):499-503.
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Campomori A, Brogioni S, Traino C, De Martino F, Rossi G, Lippi F, Pinchera A, Martino E Treatment with lithium prevents serum thyroid hormone increase after thionamide withdrawal and radioiodine therapy in patients with Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2002) 87(10):4490-4495.
Bogazzi F, Giovannetti C, Fessehatsion R, Tanda ML, Campomori A, Compri E, Rossi G, Ceccarelli C, Vitti P, Pinchera A, Bartalena L, Martino E Impact of lithium on efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy for Graves' disease: a cohort study on cure rate, time to cure, and frequency of increased serum thyroxine after antithyroid drug withdrawal. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2010) 95(1):201-208.
Bonnema SJ, Bennedbaek FN, Veje A, Marving J, Hegedus L Propylthiouracil before 131I therapy of hyperthyroid diseases: effect on cure rate evaluated by a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2004) 89(9):4439-4444.
Braga M, Walpert N, Burch HB, Solomon BL, Cooper DS The effect of methimazole on cure rates after radioiodine treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a randomized clinical trial. Thyroid (2002) 12(2):135-139.
Burch HB, Burman KD, Cooper DS A 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(12):4549-4558.
Chen DY, Schneider PF, Zhang XS, Luo XY, He ZM, Chen TH Changes in Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine and antithyroid drug treatment of Graves' disease from two prospective, randomized, open-label, blinded end-point studies. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology and Diabetes (2014) 122:1-6.
Connell JM, Hilditch TE, McCruden DC, Robertson J, Alexander WD Effect of pretreatment with carbimazole on early outcome following radio-iodine (131I) therapy. Eur J Nucl Med (1984) 9(10):464-466.
Cooper DS Hyperthyroidism. Lancet (2003) 362(9382):459-468.
Cooper DS The side-effects of antithyroid drugs. The Endocrinologist (1999) 9:457-476.
De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, Amino N, Barbour L, Cobin RH, Eastman CJ, Lazarus JH, Luton D, Mandel SJ, Mestman J, Rovet J, Sullivan S Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(8):2543-2565.
Dolman PJ, Rootman J VISA Classification for Graves orbitopathy. Ophthalmic Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery (2006) 22(5):319-324.
El-Kaissi S, Frauman AG, Wall JR Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: a practical guide to classification, natural history and management. Intern Med J (2004) 34(8):482-491.
Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard MC, Betteridge J, Boyle P Mortality after the treatment of hyperthyroidism with radioactive iodine. N Engl J Med (1998) 338(11):712-718.
Franklyn JA, Sheppard MC, Maisonneuve P Thyroid function and mortality in patients treated for hyperthyroidism. JAMA (2005) 294(1):71-80.
Garsi JP, Schlumberger M, Rubino C, Ricard M, Labbe M, Ceccarelli C, Schvartz C, Henri-Amar M, Bardet S, de Vathaire F Therapeutic administration of 131I for differentiated thyroid cancer: radiation dose to ovaries and outcome of pregnancies. Journal of Nuclear Medicine (2008) 49(5):845-852.
Hancock LD, Tuttle RM, LeMar H, Bauman J, Patience T The effect of propylthiouracil on subsequent radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1997) 47(4):425-430.
Hyer S, Vini L, O'Connell M, Pratt B, Harmer C Testicular dose and fertility in men following I(131) therapy for thyroid cancer. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2002) 56(6):755-758.
Koroscil TM Thionamides alter the efficacy of radioiodine treatment in patients with Graves' disease. South Med J (1995) 88(8):831-836.
Lai A, Sassi L, Compri E, Marino F, Sivelli P, Piantanida E, Tanda ML, Bartalena L Lower dose prednisone prevents radioiodine-associated exacerbation of initially mild or absent graves' orbitopathy: a retrospective cohort study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2010) 95(3):1333-1337.
Laurberg P, Wallin G, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, Lundell G, Torring O TSH-receptor autoimmunity in Graves' disease after therapy with anti-thyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: a 5-year prospective randomized study. European Journal of Endocrinology (2008) 158(1):69-75.
Lazarus JH Lithium and thyroid. Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 23(6):723-733.
Leary AC, Grealy G, Higgins TM, Buckley N, Barry DG, Murphy D, Ferriss JB Long-term outcomes of treatment of hyperthyroidism in Ireland. Ir J Med Sci (1999) 168(1):47-52.
Leslie WD, Ward L, Salamon EA, Ludwig S, Rowe RC, Cowden EA A randomized comparison of radioiodine doses in Graves' hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2003) 88(3):978-983.
Lewis A, Rea T, Atkinson B, Bell P, Courtney H, McCance D, Mullan K, Hunter S Outcome of 131I therapy in hyperthyroidism using a 550MBq fixed dose regimen. Ulster Medical Journal (2013) 82:85-88.
Ljunggren JG, Torring O, Wallin G, Taube A, Tallstedt L, Hamberger B, Lundell G Quality of life aspects and costs in treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: results from a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid (1998) 8(8):653-659.
Mao XM, Li HQ, Li Q, Li DM, Xie XJ, Yin GP, Zhang P, Xu XH, Wu JD, Chen SW, Wang SK Prevention of relapse of Graves' disease by treatment with an intrathyroid injection of dexamethasone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(12):4984-4991.
Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, Altea MA, Nardi M, Pitz S, Boboridis K, Sivelli P, von Arx G, Mourits MP, Baldeschi L, Bencivelli W, Wiersinga W, European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med (2011) 364(20):1920-1931.
Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Panicucci M, Bruno-Bossio G, Lepri A, Pinchera A Radioiodine treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism and progression of ophthalmopathy: protective effect of systemic corticosteroids. Acta Endocrinologica (1989) 121:145-148.
Martin NM, Patel M, Nijher GM, Misra S, Murphy E, Meeran K Adjuvant lithium improves the efficacy of radioactive iodine treatment in Graves' and toxic nodular disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2012) 77(4):621-627.
Metso S, Auvinen A, Salmi J, Huhtala H, Jaatinen P Increased long-term cardiovascular morbidity among patients treated with radioactive iodine for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 68(3):450-457.
Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, Auvinen A, Oksala H, Salmi J Increased cardiovascular and cancer mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2007) 92(6):2190-2196.
Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, Luukkaala T, Oksala H, Salmi J Long-term follow-up study of radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2004) 61(5):641-648.
Noh JY, Yasuda S, Sato S, Matsumoto M, Kunii Y, Noguchi Y, Mukasa K, Ito K, Ito K, Sugiyama O, Kobayashi H, Nihojima S, Okazaki M, Yokoyama S Clinical characteristics of myeloperoxidase antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis caused by antithyroid drugs. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(8):2806-2811.
Nyirenda MJ, Clark DN, Finlayson AR, Read J, Elders A, Bain M, Fox KA, Toft AD Thyroid disease and increased cardiovascular risk. Thyroid (2005) 15(7):718-724.
Patel NN, Abraham P, Buscombe J, Vanderpump MP The cost effectiveness of treatment modalities for thyrotoxicosis in a U.K. center. Thyroid (2006) 16(6):593-598.
Pearce SH Spontaneous reporting of adverse reactions to carbimazole and propylthiouracil in the UK. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2004) 61(5):589-594.
Perros P, Crombie AL, Kendall-Taylor P Natural history of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1995) 42(1):45-50.
Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C, Frewin S, Dickinson J A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active graves' ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2005) 90(9):5321-5323.
Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H Treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with radioiodine: results of a prospective randomized study. Thyroid (1997) 7(2):247-251.
Peters H, Fischer C, Bogner U, Reiners C, Schleusener H Radioiodine therapy of Graves' hyperthyroidism: standard vs. calculated 131iodine activity. Results from a prospective, randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Clin Invest (1995) 25(3):186-193.
Piantanida E, Lai A, Sassi L, Gallo D, Spreafico E, Tanda ML, Bartalena L Outcome prediction of treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs. Hormone and Metabolic Research (2015) :doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1555759.
Prummel MF, Mourits MP, Berghout A, Krenning EP, van der Gaag R, Koornneef L, Wiersinga WM Prednisone and cyclosporine in the treatment of severe Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med (1989) 321(20):1353-1359.
Read CH Jr, Tansey MJ, Menda Y A 36-year retrospective analysis of the efficacy and safety of radioactive iodine in treating young Graves' patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2004) 89(9):4229-4233.
Ron E, Doody MM, Becker DV, Brill AB, Curtis RE, Goldman MB, Harris BS 3rd, Hoffman DA, McConahey WM, Maxon HR, Preston-Martin S, Warshauer ME, Wong FL, Boice JD Jr Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. Cooperative Thyrotoxicosis Therapy Follow-up Study Group. JAMA (1998) 280(4):347-355.
Ross DS Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med (2011) 364(6):542-550.
Sabri O, Zimny M, Schulz G, Schreckenberger M, Reinartz P, Willmes K, Buell U Success rate of radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease: the influence of thyrostatic medication. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1999) 84(4):1229-1233.
Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Beck-Peccoz P Potential utility of rituximab for Graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(11):4291-4299.
Santos RB, Romaldini JH, Ward LS Propylthiouracil reduces the effectiveness of radioiodine treatment in hyperthyroid patients with Graves' disease. Thyroid (2004) 14(7):525-530.
Shabtai R, Shapiro MS, Orenstein D, Taragan R, Shenkman
L The antithyroid arthritis syndrome reviewed. Arthritis & Rheumatism (1984) 27(2):227-229.
Shiber S, Stiebel-Kalish H, Shimon I, Grossman A, Robenshtok E Glucocorticoid regimens for prevention of Graves' ophthalmopathy progression following radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid (2014) 24(10):1515-1523.
Shivaprasad C, Prasanna Kumar KM Long-term carbimazole pretreatment reduces the efficacy of radioiodine therapy. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2015) 19(1):84-88.
Sundaresh V, Brito JP, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, Stan MN, Murad MH, Bahn RS Comparative effectiveness of therapies for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(9):3671-3677.
Tajiri J, Noguchi S Antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: special reference to normal white blood cell count agranulocytosis. Thyroid (2004) 14(6):459-462.
Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Blomgren H, Bring J Does early administration of thyroxine reduce the development of Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine treatment?. European Journal of Endocrinology (1994) 130(5):494-497.
Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, Wallin G, Ljunggren JG, Blomgren H, Taube A Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med (1992) 326(26):1733-1738.
Tanda ML, Bartalena L Efficacy and safety of orbital radiotherapy for graves' orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2012) 97(11):3857-3865.
Tanda ML, Piantanida E, Liparulo L, Veronesi G, Lai A, Sassi L, Pariani N, Gallo D, Azzolini C, Ferrario M, Bartalena L Prevalence and natural history of Graves' orbitopathy in a large series of patients with newly diagnosed graves' hyperthyroidism seen at a single center. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2013) 98(4):1443-1449.
Torring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G, Lundell G, Ljunggren JG, Taube A, Saaf M, Hamberger B Graves' hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine--a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid Study Group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1996a) 81(8):2986-2993.
Torring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G, Lundell G, Ljunggren JG, Taube A, Saaf M, Hamberger B Graves' hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine--a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid Study Group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (1996b) 81(8):2986-2993.
Totterman TH, Karlsson FA, Bengtsson M, Mendel-Hartvig I Induction of circulating activated suppressor-like T cells by methimazole therapy for Graves' disease. N Engl J Med (1987) 316(1):15-22.
Traisk F, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, Andersson T, Berg G, Calissendorff J, Hallengren B, Hedner P, Lantz M, Nystrom E, Ponjavic V, Taube A, Torring O, Wallin G, Asman P, Lundell G, Thyroid Study Group of TT 96 Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (2009) 94(10):3700-3707.
Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, Evans JG, Young E, Bird T, Smith PA The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1977) 7(6):481-493.
Vaidya B, Williams GR, Abraham P, Pearce SH Radioiodine treatment for benign thyroid disorders: results of a nationwide survey of UK endocrinologists. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (2008) 68(5):814-820.
Vini L, Hyer S, Al-Saadi A, Pratt B, Harmer C Prognosis for fertility and ovarian function after treatment with radioiodine for thyroid cancer. Postgrad Med J (2002) 78(916):92-93.
Walter MA, Briel M, Christ-Crain M, Bonnema SJ, Connell J, Cooper DS, Bucher HC, Muller-Brand J, Muller B Effects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ (2007) 334(7592):514.
Wang PW, Luo SF, Huang BY, Lin JD, Huang MJ Depressed natural killer activity in Graves' disease and during antithyroid medication. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) (1988) 28(2):205-214.
Wartofsky L, Glinoer D, Solomon B, Nagataki S, Lagasse R, Nagayama Y, Izumi M Differences and similarities in the diagnosis and treatment of Graves' disease in Europe, Japan, and the United States. Thyroid (1991) 1(2):129-135.
Werner SC Classification of the eye changes of Graves' disease. Am J Ophthalmol (1969) 68(4):646-648.
Working Party (2007) Radioiodine in the management of benign thyroid disease. Clinical guidelines. Report of a working party.The Royal College of Physicians, London.