The Presence and Impact of Bacteria and Biofilms in Chronic Skin and Systemic Diseases
Main Article Content
Abstract
This will be an overview of our studies on biofilms and the diseases with which they are associated. Where possible, it will include the microbes that create these biofilms, their locations in the body, and their impact on the innate and adaptive immune systems. It will include all the diseases which we have recently classified as eczema in addition to those previously considered as such. It will also include psoriasis, tinea versicolor, leprosy, tertiary Lyme disease and Alzheimer’s disease, the deposition diseases (arteriosclerosis, gout pretibial myxedema), the necrobiotic granulomas (granuloma annulare, rheumatoid nodules, and necrobiosis lipoidica), molluscum contagiosum and squamous cell carcinoma in situ in pigmented transplant patients. Consequently, many chronic skin and systemic diseases have been shown to be biofilm diseases. This implies that these disorders have a large, often determinative microbiological component. Where known, the mechanism whereby these biofilms interact with the immune system will be discussed.
Article Details
How to Cite
ALLEN, Herbert B. et al.
The Presence and Impact of Bacteria and Biofilms in Chronic Skin and Systemic Diseases.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 7.2, july 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/4160>. Date accessed: 15 may 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i7.2.4160.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
References Atopic dermatitis/eczema
1. Allen HB. The Etiology of Atopic Dermatitis (2015). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6545-3
2. Allen HB, Mueller JL. A novel finding in atopic dermatitis: biofilm-producing Staphylococcus epidermidis as an etiology. Int J Dermatol. 2011; 50(8):992- 993.
3. Haque MS, Hailu T, Pritchett E, Cusack CA, Allen HB. The oldest new finding in atopic dermatitis: subclinical miliaria as an origin. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149(4):436-438.
4. Allen HB, Jones NP, Bowen SE. Lichenoid and other clinical presentations of atopic dermatitis in an inner city practice. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58(3):503-504.
5. Choi C, Hailu T, Cusack CA, Allen HB, Lodha S, Hailu T. The earliest immunologic finding in atopic dermatitis: periductal Toll-like receptor 2 expression in response to ductal occlusion by Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66:AB71.
6. Allen HB, Vaze ND, Choi C, Hailu T, Tulbert BH, et al. (2014) The presence and impact of biofilm-producing staphylococci in atopic dermatitis. JAMA Dermatol 150: 260-265.
7. Sulzberger MB, Herrmann F, Zak FG. Studies of sweating; preliminary report with particular emphasis of a sweat retention syndrome. J Invest Dermatol.1947;9(5):221-242.
8. Steinhoff M, Corvera CU, Thoma MS, et al. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 in human skin: tissue distribution and activation of keratinocytes by mast cell tryptase. Exp Dermatol 1999:8(4) 282-94
9. Lee SE, Jeong SK, Lee SH. Protease and protease-activated receptor-2 signaling in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Yonsei Med J. 2010 Nov;51(6):808-22. doi: 10.3349/ymj.2010.51.6.808. PMID: 20879045; PMCID: PMC2995962.
10. Kerstan A, Bricker E-B, Trautmann A. Decisive role of tumor necrosis factor–α for spongiosis formation in acute eczematous dermatitis. Arch Dermatol Res. 2011;303(9):651-658.
References psoriasis
1. Allen HB, Jadeja S, Allawh RM, Goyal K (2018) Psoriasis, chronic tonsillitis, and biofilms: Tonsillar pathologic findings supporting a microbial hypothesis. Ear Nose Throat J 97: 79-82.
2. El-Rachkidy RG, Hales JM, Freestone PP, Young HS, Griffiths CE, Camp RD. Increased blood levels of IgG reactive with secreted Streptococcus pyogenes proteins in chronic plaque psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127(6):1337-42.
3. Zhang J, Shaver C, Neidig L, Jones K, Cusack CA, Allen HB. Toll-Like Receptor 2 and Its Relationship with Streptococcus in Psoriasis. Skinmed. 2017;15(1):27-30.
4. Saxena VN, Dogra J. Long-term use of penicillin for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis. Eur J Dermatol. 2005;15(5):359-62.
5. Saxena VN, Dogra J. Long-term oral azithromycin in chronic plaque psoriasis: a controlled trial. Eur J Dermatol. 2010;20(3):329-33.
6. McFadden JP, Baker BS, Powles AV, Fry L. Psoriasis and streptococci: the natural selection of psoriasis revisited. Br J Dermatol. 2009;160(5):929-37.
7. Chang YT, Chou CT, Shiao YM, et al. Psoriasis vulgaris in Chinese individuals is associated with PSORS1C3 and CDSN genes. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155(4):663-9.
8. Biologics for Psoriasis Treatment. https://www,psoriasis.org>biofilms. 12/14/23
9. Personal observation
References Tinea versicolor
1. Allen HB, Goyal K, Ogrich L, Joshi S (2015) Biofilm formation by Malassezia furfur/ovale as a possible mechanism of pathogenesis in Tinea versicolor. J Clin Exp Dermatol Res 6: 311.
2. Gupta AK, Lane D, Paquet M. Systematic Review of Systemic Treatments for Tinea Versicolor and Evidence-Based Dosing Regimen Recommendations. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 18, 79–90 (2014).
3. Spence-Shishido A, Carr C, Bonner MY, Arbiser J. In vivo gram staining of tinea versicolor.JAMA Dermatol. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.2699.
4. Kaplan JB. Biofilm Dispersal: Mechanisms, Clinical Implications, and Potential Therapeutic Uses. J. Dent. Res. 89, 205–218 (2010)
References Leprosy
1. Allen HB, Moschella SL. The Role of Rifampin in Leprosy: Leprosy Through a New Lens. JAMA Dermatol. 2017;153(3):261–262. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.5506
2. Ridley DS, Jopling WH. Classification of leprosy according to immunity: a five-group system, Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis, 1966, Vol. 34 (pg. 255-73).
3. Warwick J. Britton, 3. Immunology of leprosy, Transitions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Volume 87, Issue 5, 1993, Pages 501-514, ISSN 0035-9203, http://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(93)90066-Y.
4. Britton WJ, Lockwood DN. Leprosy. Lancet. 20014 Apr 10;363(9416):1209-19. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15952-7. PMID: 15081655.
5. Sanz-Martín N, Samillán-Sosa Kdel R, De Miguel J, Martínez-Miguel P. Renal amyloidosis in leprosy, an infrequent cause of nephrotic syndrome in Europe. BMJ Case Rep. 2016 Aug 3;2016:bcr2016216038. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2016-216038. PMID: 27489069; PMCID: PMC4986063.
6. Sharma S, Sarin R C, Prakash S. Secondary Amyloidosis in Leprosy. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 1978;44;31-33.
7. Nery JA, Bernardes Filho F, Quintanilha J, Machado AM, Oliveria Sde S, Sales AM. Understanding the type 1 reactional state for early diagnosis and treatment: a way to avoid disability in leprosy. An Bras Dermatol. 2013 Sep-Oct; 88(5):797-92. doi:10.1590/abd1806-4841.20132004/ PMID: 24173185; PMCID: PMC3718356.
8. Chakraborty P, Kumar A. The extracellular matrix of mycobacterial biofilms: could we shorten the treatment of mycobacterial infections? Microb Cell. 2019 Jan 18;6(2);105-122 doi: 10.15698/mic2019.02.667 PMIDL 30740456; PMCID: PMC636425
9. Tukel C, Wilson RP, Nishimori M, Pezeshki M, Chromy BA, Baumier AG. Responses to amyloids of microbial and host origin are mediated through toll-like receptor 2. Cell Host Microbe. 2009;6:45-53.
10. Allen HB. The Etiology of Atopic Dermatitis (2015). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6545-3
11. Simons JP, Al-Shawi R, Ellmerich S, Speck I, Aslam S, Hutchinson WL, Mangione PP, Disterer P, Gilbertson JA, Hunt T, Millar DJ, Minogue S, Bodkin K, Pepys MB, Hawkins PN. Pathogenetic mechanisms of amyloid A amyloidosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Oct 1;110(40):16115-20. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1306621110. Epub 2013 Aug 19. PMID: 23959890; PMCID: PMC3791773
12. Romero D, Aguilar C, Losick R, Kolter R. Amyloid fibers provide structural integrity to Bacillus subtilis biofilms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Feb 2;107(5):2230-4. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0910560107. Epub 2010 Jan 13. PMID: 20080671; PMCID: PMC2836674.
References Tertiary Lyme Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease
1. Allen HB, Allawh RM, Gresham K, Donnelly K, Goyal K (2018) Tertiary Lyme Disease. Clin Microbiol 7: 309. doi:10.4172/2327-5073.1000309
2. Allen HB (2021) Alzheimer’s Disease: A Chronic Infection. DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-81-9479-7-5
3. Allen HB, Allawh R, Touati A, Katsetos C, Joshi SG. Alzheimer’s disease: The novel finding of intracellular biofilms. J Neuroinfect Dis. 2017;8:247.
4. MacDonald AB (1986) Borrelia in the brains of patients dying with dementia. JAMA 256, 2195-2196.
5. Riviere GR, Riviere GH, Smith KS (2002) Molecular and immunological evidence of oral treponemes in the human brain and their association with Alzheimer’s disease. Oral Microbiol Immunol 17, 113-118.
6. Miklossy J. Bacterial amyloid and DNA are important constituents of senile plaques: Further evidence of the spirochetal and biofilm nature of senile plaques. J Alz Dis. 2016;53:1479-1473.
7. Iqbal K, Alonso AC, Chen S, Chohan MO, El-Akkad E, Gong C Khatoon S, Liu F, Rahman A, Tanimukai H, Grundke-Iqbal I (2005) Tau pathology in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies. Biochim Biophys Acta 1739: 198-210.
8. Allen HB, Allen,RA (2022) The Historical Development of the Pathological Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease Based on Microbiology, Anatomy, and Physiology. https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i12.3423
9. Allen HB (2021) A Novel Approach to the Treatment and Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease Based on the Pathology and Microbiology. J Alz Dis 84(1): 61-67
References Deposition Diseases
1. ¬¬¬Fatourechi V. Pretibial myxedema: pathophysiology and treatment options. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2005;6(5):295-309. doi: 10.2165/00128071-200506050-00003. PMID: 16252929.
2. Allen HB, Cusack CA, Allen RA (2019) The Presence of Biofilms in Gouty Tophi. Clin Microbial Res DOI: org/10.31487/j.CMR.2018.01.007
3. Purohit MB, Purohit TM, Tandon RK. FNAC of gouty tophi-a case alreport. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2006;49:42–3.
4. McCarty DJ. Gout without hyperuricemia. JAMA. 1994;271:302–3
5. Sah SP, Rani S, Mahto R. Fine needle aspiration of gouty tophi: a report of two cases. Acta Cytol. 2002;46:784–5.
6. Allen HB, Boles J, Morales D, Ballal S, Joshi SG (2016) Arteriosclerosis: The Novel Finding of Biofilms and Innate Immune System Activity within the Plaques. J Med Surg Pathol 2016; 1:135.doi: 10.4172/jmsp.1000121
7. Den Dekker WK, Cheng C, Pasterkamp G, Duckers HJ (2010) Toll like receptor 4 in atherosclerosis and plaque destabilization. Atherosclerosis 209: 314-320.
8. Ishikawa Y, Satoh M, Itoh T, Minami Y, Takahashi Y, et al. (2008) Local expression of Toll-like receptor 4 at the site of ruptured plaques in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Clin Sci (Lond) 115: 133-140.
9. Lanter BB, Sauer K, Davies DG (2014) Bacteria present in carotid arterial plaques are found as biofilm deposits which may contribute to enhanced risk of plaque rupture. MBio 5: e01206-01214.
10. Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P (2009) Evolving concepts in biofilm infections. Cell Microbiol 11: 1034-1043.
11. Darveau RP (2010) Periodontitis: a polymicrobial disruption of host homeostasis. Nat Rev Microbiol 8: 481-490.
12. Amar S, Engelke M (2015) Periodontal innate immune mechanisms relevant to atherosclerosis. Mol Oral Microbiol 30: 171-185.
13. Rosenfeld ME, Campbell LA (2011) Pathogens and atherosclerosis: update on the potential contribution of multiple infectious organisms to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Thromb Haemost 106: 858-867.
14. Slocum C, Kramer C, Genco CA (2016) Immune dysregulation mediated by the oral microbiome: potential link to chronic inflammation and atherosclerosis. J Intern Med 280: 114-128.
References Necrobiotic Granulomas
1. Allen HB, Encarnacion IN, Roberts AA (2023) Biofilms in Necrobiotic Granulomas. J Bio Innov 12(1) DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.22312759
2. Allen HB, Allawh RM, Larijani M, Cusack CA (2019) Biofilms in Granuloma Annulare. Clin Dermatol Dermatitis 2: 1 DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.20960617.
3. Allen HB, Yi Z, Roberts A, Allen RA (2019) Biofilms in Rheumatoid Arthritis Nodules: a Novel Clue Relating to Microbial Origin. Microbial Infect Dis 3(4): 1-2.
4. Allen HB (2015) The Etiology of Atopic Dermatitis. Springer-Verlag, London.
5. Allen HB, Moschella SL (2017) The Role of Rifampin in Leprosy: Leprosy Through a New Lens. JAMA Dermatol 153: 261-262.
6. Jacovides CL, Kreft R, Adeli B, Hozack B, Ehrlich GD, et al. (2012) Successful identification of pathogens by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based electron spray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-TOF-MS) in culture-negative periprosthetic joint infection. J Bone Joint Surg Am 94: 2247-2254.
References Viral Diseases
1. Allen HB, Allawh RM, Ballal S (2017) Virally-Induced, Intracellular Biofilms; Novel Findings in Molluscum Contagiosum. Clin Microbiol 6: 302.
2. Allen HB, Chung CL, Allawh RM, Larijani M, Cusack CA (2019) Biofilms in Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Situ Clin Dermatol and Dermatitis 2(1):110.
3. Durkin J, Fine JL, Sam H, Pugliano-Mauro M, Ho J. Imaging of Mohs micrographic surgerysections using full-field optical coherence tomography: a pilot study. Dermatol Surg. 2014 Mar;40(3):266-74. doi: 10.1111/dsu.12419. Epub 2014 Jan 16
4. Chung CL, Nadhan KS, Shaver CM, et al. Comparison of Posttransplant Dermatologic Diseases by Race. JAMA Dermatology. 2017;153(6):552-558. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.0045.
5. Pais-Correia A-M, Sachse M, Guadagnini S, Robbiati V, Lasserre R, Gessain A, Gout O, Alcover A, Thoulouze M-I. (2010) Biofilm-like extracellular viral assemblies mediate HTLV-1 cell-to-cell transmission at virological synapses. Nature Medicine 16 (1): 83-90.
6. Jain N, Aden J, Nagamatsu K, et al. Inhibition of curli assembly and Escherichia coli biofilm formation by the human systemic amyloid precursor transthyretin. PNAS 2017; 114(46): 12184-12189
7. Ding H, Liu J, XUE R, et al. Transthyretin as a potential biomarker for the differential diagnosis between lung cancer and lung infection. Biomedical Reports. 2014;2(5):765-769. doi:10.3892/br.2014.313.
References
1. Jariwala N, Ilyas E, Allen HB (2016) Lyme Disease: A Bioethical Morass. J Clin Res Bioeth 7: 1000288. doi: 10.4172/2155-9627.1000288
2. Allen HB, Allawh R, Ogrich L, Jariwala N, Ilyas E (2017) Bioethics and Psoriasis. J Clin Res Bioeth 8: 304. doi: 10.4172/2155-9627.1000304
3. Allen HB, Allawh R, Ilyas E, Joshi SG. (2018) Bioethical Challenges Arising from the Microbiology and Pathology of Alzheimer's Disease. Current Neurobiology DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.12071958
1. Allen HB. The Etiology of Atopic Dermatitis (2015). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6545-3
2. Allen HB, Mueller JL. A novel finding in atopic dermatitis: biofilm-producing Staphylococcus epidermidis as an etiology. Int J Dermatol. 2011; 50(8):992- 993.
3. Haque MS, Hailu T, Pritchett E, Cusack CA, Allen HB. The oldest new finding in atopic dermatitis: subclinical miliaria as an origin. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149(4):436-438.
4. Allen HB, Jones NP, Bowen SE. Lichenoid and other clinical presentations of atopic dermatitis in an inner city practice. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;58(3):503-504.
5. Choi C, Hailu T, Cusack CA, Allen HB, Lodha S, Hailu T. The earliest immunologic finding in atopic dermatitis: periductal Toll-like receptor 2 expression in response to ductal occlusion by Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66:AB71.
6. Allen HB, Vaze ND, Choi C, Hailu T, Tulbert BH, et al. (2014) The presence and impact of biofilm-producing staphylococci in atopic dermatitis. JAMA Dermatol 150: 260-265.
7. Sulzberger MB, Herrmann F, Zak FG. Studies of sweating; preliminary report with particular emphasis of a sweat retention syndrome. J Invest Dermatol.1947;9(5):221-242.
8. Steinhoff M, Corvera CU, Thoma MS, et al. Proteinase-activated receptor-2 in human skin: tissue distribution and activation of keratinocytes by mast cell tryptase. Exp Dermatol 1999:8(4) 282-94
9. Lee SE, Jeong SK, Lee SH. Protease and protease-activated receptor-2 signaling in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Yonsei Med J. 2010 Nov;51(6):808-22. doi: 10.3349/ymj.2010.51.6.808. PMID: 20879045; PMCID: PMC2995962.
10. Kerstan A, Bricker E-B, Trautmann A. Decisive role of tumor necrosis factor–α for spongiosis formation in acute eczematous dermatitis. Arch Dermatol Res. 2011;303(9):651-658.
References psoriasis
1. Allen HB, Jadeja S, Allawh RM, Goyal K (2018) Psoriasis, chronic tonsillitis, and biofilms: Tonsillar pathologic findings supporting a microbial hypothesis. Ear Nose Throat J 97: 79-82.
2. El-Rachkidy RG, Hales JM, Freestone PP, Young HS, Griffiths CE, Camp RD. Increased blood levels of IgG reactive with secreted Streptococcus pyogenes proteins in chronic plaque psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127(6):1337-42.
3. Zhang J, Shaver C, Neidig L, Jones K, Cusack CA, Allen HB. Toll-Like Receptor 2 and Its Relationship with Streptococcus in Psoriasis. Skinmed. 2017;15(1):27-30.
4. Saxena VN, Dogra J. Long-term use of penicillin for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis. Eur J Dermatol. 2005;15(5):359-62.
5. Saxena VN, Dogra J. Long-term oral azithromycin in chronic plaque psoriasis: a controlled trial. Eur J Dermatol. 2010;20(3):329-33.
6. McFadden JP, Baker BS, Powles AV, Fry L. Psoriasis and streptococci: the natural selection of psoriasis revisited. Br J Dermatol. 2009;160(5):929-37.
7. Chang YT, Chou CT, Shiao YM, et al. Psoriasis vulgaris in Chinese individuals is associated with PSORS1C3 and CDSN genes. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155(4):663-9.
8. Biologics for Psoriasis Treatment. https://www,psoriasis.org>biofilms. 12/14/23
9. Personal observation
References Tinea versicolor
1. Allen HB, Goyal K, Ogrich L, Joshi S (2015) Biofilm formation by Malassezia furfur/ovale as a possible mechanism of pathogenesis in Tinea versicolor. J Clin Exp Dermatol Res 6: 311.
2. Gupta AK, Lane D, Paquet M. Systematic Review of Systemic Treatments for Tinea Versicolor and Evidence-Based Dosing Regimen Recommendations. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 18, 79–90 (2014).
3. Spence-Shishido A, Carr C, Bonner MY, Arbiser J. In vivo gram staining of tinea versicolor.JAMA Dermatol. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.2699.
4. Kaplan JB. Biofilm Dispersal: Mechanisms, Clinical Implications, and Potential Therapeutic Uses. J. Dent. Res. 89, 205–218 (2010)
References Leprosy
1. Allen HB, Moschella SL. The Role of Rifampin in Leprosy: Leprosy Through a New Lens. JAMA Dermatol. 2017;153(3):261–262. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.5506
2. Ridley DS, Jopling WH. Classification of leprosy according to immunity: a five-group system, Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis, 1966, Vol. 34 (pg. 255-73).
3. Warwick J. Britton, 3. Immunology of leprosy, Transitions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Volume 87, Issue 5, 1993, Pages 501-514, ISSN 0035-9203, http://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(93)90066-Y.
4. Britton WJ, Lockwood DN. Leprosy. Lancet. 20014 Apr 10;363(9416):1209-19. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15952-7. PMID: 15081655.
5. Sanz-Martín N, Samillán-Sosa Kdel R, De Miguel J, Martínez-Miguel P. Renal amyloidosis in leprosy, an infrequent cause of nephrotic syndrome in Europe. BMJ Case Rep. 2016 Aug 3;2016:bcr2016216038. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2016-216038. PMID: 27489069; PMCID: PMC4986063.
6. Sharma S, Sarin R C, Prakash S. Secondary Amyloidosis in Leprosy. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 1978;44;31-33.
7. Nery JA, Bernardes Filho F, Quintanilha J, Machado AM, Oliveria Sde S, Sales AM. Understanding the type 1 reactional state for early diagnosis and treatment: a way to avoid disability in leprosy. An Bras Dermatol. 2013 Sep-Oct; 88(5):797-92. doi:10.1590/abd1806-4841.20132004/ PMID: 24173185; PMCID: PMC3718356.
8. Chakraborty P, Kumar A. The extracellular matrix of mycobacterial biofilms: could we shorten the treatment of mycobacterial infections? Microb Cell. 2019 Jan 18;6(2);105-122 doi: 10.15698/mic2019.02.667 PMIDL 30740456; PMCID: PMC636425
9. Tukel C, Wilson RP, Nishimori M, Pezeshki M, Chromy BA, Baumier AG. Responses to amyloids of microbial and host origin are mediated through toll-like receptor 2. Cell Host Microbe. 2009;6:45-53.
10. Allen HB. The Etiology of Atopic Dermatitis (2015). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6545-3
11. Simons JP, Al-Shawi R, Ellmerich S, Speck I, Aslam S, Hutchinson WL, Mangione PP, Disterer P, Gilbertson JA, Hunt T, Millar DJ, Minogue S, Bodkin K, Pepys MB, Hawkins PN. Pathogenetic mechanisms of amyloid A amyloidosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Oct 1;110(40):16115-20. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1306621110. Epub 2013 Aug 19. PMID: 23959890; PMCID: PMC3791773
12. Romero D, Aguilar C, Losick R, Kolter R. Amyloid fibers provide structural integrity to Bacillus subtilis biofilms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Feb 2;107(5):2230-4. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0910560107. Epub 2010 Jan 13. PMID: 20080671; PMCID: PMC2836674.
References Tertiary Lyme Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease
1. Allen HB, Allawh RM, Gresham K, Donnelly K, Goyal K (2018) Tertiary Lyme Disease. Clin Microbiol 7: 309. doi:10.4172/2327-5073.1000309
2. Allen HB (2021) Alzheimer’s Disease: A Chronic Infection. DOI: 10.9734/bpi/mono/978-81-9479-7-5
3. Allen HB, Allawh R, Touati A, Katsetos C, Joshi SG. Alzheimer’s disease: The novel finding of intracellular biofilms. J Neuroinfect Dis. 2017;8:247.
4. MacDonald AB (1986) Borrelia in the brains of patients dying with dementia. JAMA 256, 2195-2196.
5. Riviere GR, Riviere GH, Smith KS (2002) Molecular and immunological evidence of oral treponemes in the human brain and their association with Alzheimer’s disease. Oral Microbiol Immunol 17, 113-118.
6. Miklossy J. Bacterial amyloid and DNA are important constituents of senile plaques: Further evidence of the spirochetal and biofilm nature of senile plaques. J Alz Dis. 2016;53:1479-1473.
7. Iqbal K, Alonso AC, Chen S, Chohan MO, El-Akkad E, Gong C Khatoon S, Liu F, Rahman A, Tanimukai H, Grundke-Iqbal I (2005) Tau pathology in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies. Biochim Biophys Acta 1739: 198-210.
8. Allen HB, Allen,RA (2022) The Historical Development of the Pathological Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease Based on Microbiology, Anatomy, and Physiology. https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i12.3423
9. Allen HB (2021) A Novel Approach to the Treatment and Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease Based on the Pathology and Microbiology. J Alz Dis 84(1): 61-67
References Deposition Diseases
1. ¬¬¬Fatourechi V. Pretibial myxedema: pathophysiology and treatment options. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2005;6(5):295-309. doi: 10.2165/00128071-200506050-00003. PMID: 16252929.
2. Allen HB, Cusack CA, Allen RA (2019) The Presence of Biofilms in Gouty Tophi. Clin Microbial Res DOI: org/10.31487/j.CMR.2018.01.007
3. Purohit MB, Purohit TM, Tandon RK. FNAC of gouty tophi-a case alreport. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2006;49:42–3.
4. McCarty DJ. Gout without hyperuricemia. JAMA. 1994;271:302–3
5. Sah SP, Rani S, Mahto R. Fine needle aspiration of gouty tophi: a report of two cases. Acta Cytol. 2002;46:784–5.
6. Allen HB, Boles J, Morales D, Ballal S, Joshi SG (2016) Arteriosclerosis: The Novel Finding of Biofilms and Innate Immune System Activity within the Plaques. J Med Surg Pathol 2016; 1:135.doi: 10.4172/jmsp.1000121
7. Den Dekker WK, Cheng C, Pasterkamp G, Duckers HJ (2010) Toll like receptor 4 in atherosclerosis and plaque destabilization. Atherosclerosis 209: 314-320.
8. Ishikawa Y, Satoh M, Itoh T, Minami Y, Takahashi Y, et al. (2008) Local expression of Toll-like receptor 4 at the site of ruptured plaques in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Clin Sci (Lond) 115: 133-140.
9. Lanter BB, Sauer K, Davies DG (2014) Bacteria present in carotid arterial plaques are found as biofilm deposits which may contribute to enhanced risk of plaque rupture. MBio 5: e01206-01214.
10. Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P (2009) Evolving concepts in biofilm infections. Cell Microbiol 11: 1034-1043.
11. Darveau RP (2010) Periodontitis: a polymicrobial disruption of host homeostasis. Nat Rev Microbiol 8: 481-490.
12. Amar S, Engelke M (2015) Periodontal innate immune mechanisms relevant to atherosclerosis. Mol Oral Microbiol 30: 171-185.
13. Rosenfeld ME, Campbell LA (2011) Pathogens and atherosclerosis: update on the potential contribution of multiple infectious organisms to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Thromb Haemost 106: 858-867.
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References Necrobiotic Granulomas
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References Viral Diseases
1. Allen HB, Allawh RM, Ballal S (2017) Virally-Induced, Intracellular Biofilms; Novel Findings in Molluscum Contagiosum. Clin Microbiol 6: 302.
2. Allen HB, Chung CL, Allawh RM, Larijani M, Cusack CA (2019) Biofilms in Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Situ Clin Dermatol and Dermatitis 2(1):110.
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4. Chung CL, Nadhan KS, Shaver CM, et al. Comparison of Posttransplant Dermatologic Diseases by Race. JAMA Dermatology. 2017;153(6):552-558. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.0045.
5. Pais-Correia A-M, Sachse M, Guadagnini S, Robbiati V, Lasserre R, Gessain A, Gout O, Alcover A, Thoulouze M-I. (2010) Biofilm-like extracellular viral assemblies mediate HTLV-1 cell-to-cell transmission at virological synapses. Nature Medicine 16 (1): 83-90.
6. Jain N, Aden J, Nagamatsu K, et al. Inhibition of curli assembly and Escherichia coli biofilm formation by the human systemic amyloid precursor transthyretin. PNAS 2017; 114(46): 12184-12189
7. Ding H, Liu J, XUE R, et al. Transthyretin as a potential biomarker for the differential diagnosis between lung cancer and lung infection. Biomedical Reports. 2014;2(5):765-769. doi:10.3892/br.2014.313.
References
1. Jariwala N, Ilyas E, Allen HB (2016) Lyme Disease: A Bioethical Morass. J Clin Res Bioeth 7: 1000288. doi: 10.4172/2155-9627.1000288
2. Allen HB, Allawh R, Ogrich L, Jariwala N, Ilyas E (2017) Bioethics and Psoriasis. J Clin Res Bioeth 8: 304. doi: 10.4172/2155-9627.1000304
3. Allen HB, Allawh R, Ilyas E, Joshi SG. (2018) Bioethical Challenges Arising from the Microbiology and Pathology of Alzheimer's Disease. Current Neurobiology DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.12071958