Neuropathic Pain in Critical Covid-19 illness Survivors: A Narrative Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a significant number of cases worldwide, leading to a substantial increase in Intensive care unit (ICU) admissions. Survivors of critical illness are known to experience long-term physical, cognitive, and psychological impairments. Chronic pain is also a prevalent complication, and specifically, neuropathic pain (NP) is strongly linked to a diminished quality of life. This narrative review aims to investigate the incidence, causes and manifestations of NP in critical illness COVID survivors.
Methods: A comprehensive search of the Pubmed database was conducted on May 31, 2023, using the keywords "Covid-19" OR "Sars-cov-2" combined with "neuropathic pain" and "critical care" OR "intensive care unit" to identify relevant publications in English or Spanish pertaining to adult human subjects. The search process adhered to the recommended flowchart format outlined in the PRISMA 2020 statement.
Results: The primary search yielded 26 results. Eight results were excluded as they did not pertain to COVID-19 pain.
Discussion: Intensive care survivors can develop new onset pain and chronic pain though various mechanisms. In the case of critical illness COVID-19 survivors, pain may arise due to viral neurotropic potential, immune-mediated reactions, and microvascular complications. Studies have reported new-onset upper extremity NP, with ulnar neuropathy being the most prevalent, followed by brachial plexus, axillary, and median neuropathies. Lower limb NP particularly sciatic neuropathy has also been documented, along with peroneal nerve, meralgia paresthetica, and femoral neuropathy. Cranial neuropathies, such as facial palsy and trigeminal neuralgia, have been observed in case series. Additionally, widespread pain frequently associated with critical illness neuromyopathy may be present. Notably, COVID-19 survivors with critical illness may experience nociplastic pain and conditions related to central sensitization, posing challenges in distinguishing them from those with Long-COVID syndrome.
Conclusion: Further research is crucial to gain a comprehensive understanding of the neurological consequences arising from critical COVID-19 illness. Healthcare professionals should maintain a high suspicion index for NP in this population. Advancing our knowledge of NP in COVID-19 survivors can help develop effective strategies to enhance overall patient outcomes.
Keywords:
Critical Care Outcomes, Critical Illness survivors, COVID-19, Neuropathic Pain, Chronic Pain, Post Intensive Care Unit Syndrome
Article Details
How to Cite
ALIAGA, Jorge et al.
Neuropathic Pain in Critical Covid-19 illness Survivors: A Narrative Review.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 10, oct. 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/4316>. Date accessed: 15 may 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i10.4316.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Who coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard. World Health Organization. Available at: https://covid19.who.int/ (Accessed: 05 March 2023).
2. Verity R, Okell LC, Dorigatti I, et al. Estimates of the severity of coronavirus disease 2019: a model-based analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(6):669-677. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30243-7
3. Stowe J, Andrews N, Kirsebom F, Ramsay M, Bernal JL. Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against Omicron and Delta hospitalisation, a test negative case-control study. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1). doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33378-7
4. Kemp HI, Corner E, Colvin LA. Chronic pain after COVID-19: implications for rehabilitation. Br J Anaesth. 2020;125(4):436-440. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2020.05.021
5. Elliott D, Davidson JE, Harvey MA, et al. Exploring the Scope of Post–Intensive Care Syndrome Therapy and Care. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(12):2518-2526. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000525
6. Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: Report from a stakeholders’ conference. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(2):502-509. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e318232da75
7. Kemp HI, Laycock H, Costello A, Brett SJ. Chronic pain in critical care survivors: a narrative review. Br J Anaesth. 2019;123(2):e372-e384. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.025
8. Rousseau AF, Prescott HC, Brett SJ, et al. Long-term outcomes after critical illness: recent insights. Crit Care. 2021;25(1):108. doi:10.1186/s13054-021-03535-3
9. Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H. Evidence of the COVID-19 Virus Targeting the CNS: Tissue Distribution, Host-Virus Interaction, and Proposed Neurotropic Mechanisms. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2020;11(7):995-998. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00122
10. Terminology | International Association for the Study of Pain. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Accedido el 19 de mayo de 2023. https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/.
11. Post COVID-19 condition (Long COVID). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed March 1, 2023. https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/post-covid-19-condition.
12. Cabrera Martimbianco AL, Pacheco RL, Bagattini ÂM, Riera R. Frequency, signs and symptoms, and criteria adopted for long COVID-19: A systematic review. Int J Clin Pract. 2021;75(10). doi:10.1111/ijcp.14357
13. Novak P, Mukerji SS, Alabsi HS, et al. Multisystem Involvement in Post-Acute Sequelae of Coronavirus Disease 19. Ann Neurol. 2022;91(3):367-379. doi:10.1002/ana.26286
14. Jensen MP, Chodroff MJ, Dworkin RH. The impact of neuropathic pain on health-related quality of life: Review and implications. Neurology. 2007;68(15):1178-1182. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000259085.61898.9e
15. Torrance N, Smith BH, Bennett MI, Lee AJ. The Epidemiology of Chronic Pain of Predominantly Neuropathic Origin. Results From a General Population Survey. Journal of Pain. 2006;7(4):281-289. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2005.11.008
16. Colloca L, Ludman T, Bouhassira D, et al. Neuropathic pain. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.2
17. Attal N, Lanteri-Minet M, Laurent B, Fermanian J, Bouhassira D. The specific disease burden of neuropathic pain: Results of a French nationwide survey. Pain. 2011;152(12):2836-2843. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2011.09.014
18. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. Published online March 29, 2021:n71. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71
19. Mitsikostas DD, Moka E, Orrillo E, et al. Neuropathic Pain in Neurologic Disorders: A Narrative Review. Cureus. Published online February 21, 2022. doi:10.7759/cureus.22419
20. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Nijs J, Neblett R, et al. Phenotyping Post-COVID Pain as a Nociceptive, Neuropathic, or Nociplastic Pain Condition. Biomedicines. 2022;10(10). doi:10.3390/biomedicines10102562
21. Miller C, O’Sullivan J, Jeffrey J, Power D. Brachial Plexus Neuropathies during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Retrospective Case Series of 15 Patients in Critical Care. Phys Ther. 2021;101(1):1-8. doi:10.1093/ptj/pzaa191
22. Ojeda A, Calvo A, Cuñat T, et al. Characteristics and influence on quality of life of new-onset pain in critical COVID-19 survivors. European Journal of Pain (United Kingdom). 2022;26(3):680-694. doi:10.1002/ejp.1897
23. Guerrero M, Castroman P, Quiroga O, et al. Pain Management and COVID-19: A Latin American Perspective. Cureus. 2022;14(3):e23100. doi:10.7759/cureus.23100
24. Meyer-Frießem CH, Gierthmühlen J, Baron R, Sommer C, Üçeyler N, Enax-Krumova EK. Pain during and after COVID-19 in Germany and worldwide: A narrative review of current knowledge. Pain Rep. 2021;6(1). doi:10.1097/PR9.0000000000000893
25. Shanthanna H, Nelson AM, Kissoon N, Narouze S. The COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences for chronic pain: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2022;77(9):1039-1050. doi:10.1111/anae.15801
26. Cohen SP, Wang EJ, Doshi TL, Vase L, Cawcutt KA, Tontisirin N. Chronic pain and infection: mechanisms, causes, conditions, treatments, and controversies. BMJ Medicine. 2022;1(1):e000108. doi:10.1136/bmjmed-2021-000108
27. Petrucci E, Cofini V, Pizzi B, et al. Pain in critically ill COVID-19 patients: An Italian retrospective study. Open Medicine (Poland). 2022;17(1):1803-1810. doi:10.1515/med-2022-0600
28. Lucchini A, Russotto V, Barreca N, et al. Short and long-term complications due to standard and extended prone position cycles in CoViD-19 patients. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2022;69. doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2021.103158
29. Xiong W, Mu J, Guo J, et al. New onset neurologic events in people with COVID-19 in 3 regions in China. Neurology. 2020;95(11):E1479-E1487. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010034
30. Bohania N, Ish P, Nune A, Iyengar KP. Cranial neuropathy in COVID-19: A case series and review of literature. Infezioni in Medicina. 2021;29(4):609-613. doi:10.53854/liim-2904-15
31. Mahmood SBZ, Mushtaq MZ, Kanwar D, Ali SA. Lower limb axonal mononeuropathies as sequelae of COVID-19: a case report and review of literature. Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery. 2022;58(1). doi:10.1186/s41983-022-00458-w
32. Raahimi MM, Kane A, Moore CEG, Alareed AW. Late onset of Guillain-Barré syndrome following SARS-CoV-2 infection: part of “long COVID-19 syndrome”? BMJ Case Rep. 2021;14(1). doi:10.1136/bcr-2020-240178
33. Woltsche JN, Horwath-Winter J, Dorn C, et al. Neuropathic Corneal Pain as Debilitating Manifestation of LONG-COVID. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. Published online July 7, 2022:1-3. doi:10.1080/09273948.2022.2090963
34. Correia AO, Feitosa PWG, Moreira JL de S, Nogueira SÁR, Fonseca RB, Nobre MEP. Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses: A systematic review. Neurol Psychiatry Brain Res. 2020;37:27-32. doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2020.05.008
35. Baumbach P, Götz T, Günther A, Weiss T, Meissner W. Chronic intensive care-related pain: Exploratory analysis on predictors and influence on health-related quality of life. European Journal of Pain (United Kingdom). 2018;22(2):402-413. doi:10.1002/ejp.1129
36. Baumbach P, Götz T, Günther A, Weiss T, Meissner W. Prevalence and characteristics of chronic intensive care-related pain: The role of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(6):1129-1137. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001635
37. Koster-Brouwer ME, Rijsdijk M, Van Os WKM, et al. Occurrence and Risk Factors of Chronic Pain after Critical Illness. Crit Care Med. Published online 2020:680-687. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000004259
38. Wilder-Smith OHG, Arendt-Nielsen L. Postoperative Hyperalgesia. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(3):601-607. doi:10.1097/00000542-200603000-00028
39. Fletcher D, Stamer UM, Pogatzki-Zahn E, et al. Chronic postsurgical pain in Europe: An observational study. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32(10):725-734. doi:10.1097/EJA.0000000000000319
40. Vanhorebeek I, Latronico N, Van den Berghe G. ICU-acquired weakness. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(4):637-653. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-05944-4
41. Bayman EO, Brennan TJ. Incidence and Severity of Chronic Pain at 3 and 6 Months After Thoracotomy: Meta-Analysis. J Pain. 2014;15(9):887-897. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2014.06.005
42. Battle CE, Lovett S, Hutchings H. Chronic pain in survivors of critical illness: A retrospective analysis of incidence and risk factors. Crit Care. 2013;17(3). doi:10.1186/cc12746
43. Fan E, Dowdy DW, Colantuoni E, et al. Physical complications in acute lung injury survivors: A two-year longitudinal prospective study. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(4):849-859. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000040
44. Kress JP, Hall JB. ICU-Acquired Weakness and Recovery from Critical Illness. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;370(17):1626-1635. doi:10.1056/nejmra1209390
45. Stevens RD, Dowdy DW, Michaels RK, Mendez-Tellez PA, Pronovost PJ, Needham DM. Neuromuscular dysfunction acquired in critical illness: A systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(11):1876-1891. doi:10.1007/s00134-007-0772-2
46. Zorowitz RD. ICU–Acquired Weakness: A Rehabilitation Perspective of Diagnosis, Treatment, and Functional Management. Chest. 2016;150(4):966-971. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2016.06.006
47. Yang T, Li Z, Jiang L, Wang Y, Xi X. Risk factors for intensive care unit-acquired weakness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2018;138(2):104-114. doi:10.1111/ane.12964
48. Frithiof R, Rostami E, Kumlien E, et al. Critical illness polyneuropathy, myopathy and neuronal biomarkers in COVID-19 patients: A prospective study. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2021;132(7):1733-1740. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2021.03.016
49. Cabañes-Martínez L, Villadóniga M, González-Rodríguez L, et al. Neuromuscular involvement in COVID-19 critically ill patients. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2020;131(12):2809-2816. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2020.09.017
50. Zupanc A, Vidmar G, Majdič N, Novak P. Health-related quality-of-life during rehabilitation in patients with critical illness neuropathy/myopathy after severe coronavirus disease 2019. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 2023;46(1):53-60. doi:10.1097/MRR.0000000000000558
51. Koryürek ÖM, Kalkan G. A new alternative therapy in dermatology: Tocilizumab. Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2016;35(2):145-152. doi:10.3109/15569527.2015.1049356
52. Finsterer J, Scorza FA, Scorza CA, Fiorini C. Peripheral neuropathy in COVID-19 is due to immune-mechanisms, pre-existing risk factors, anti-viral drugs, or bedding in the Intensive Care Unit. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2021;79(10):924-928. doi:10.1590/0004-282X-ANP-2021-0030
53. Kushlaf HA. Emerging Toxic Neuropathies and Myopathies. Neurol Clin. 2011;29(3):679-687. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2011.05.009
54. Vlake JH, Van Genderen ME, Schut A, et al. Patients suffering from psychological impairments following critical illness are in need of information. J Intensive Care. 2020;8(1). doi:10.1186/s40560-019-0422-0
55. Schwab K, Schwitzer E, Qadir N. Postacute Sequelae of COVID-19 Critical Illness. Crit Care Clin. 2022;38(3):455-472. doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2022.01.001
56. Fishbain DA, Pulikal A, Lewis JE, Gao J. Chronic Pain Types Differ in Their Reported Prevalence of Post -Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and There Is Consistent Evidence That Chronic Pain Is Associated with PTSD: An Evidence-Based Structured Systematic Review. Pain Medicine. Published online May 17, 2016:pnw065. doi:10.1093/pm/pnw065
57. Linton SJ, Bergbom S. Understanding the link between depression and pain. Scand J Pain. 2011;2(2):47-54. doi:10.1016/j.sjpain.2011.01.005
58. Williams LD, Zis P. COVID-19-Related Neuropathic Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4). doi:10.3390/jcm12041672
59. Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Dubeau P, et al. Human coronaviruses and other respiratory viruses: Underestimated opportunistic pathogens of the central nervous system? Viruses. 2019;12(1). doi:10.3390/v12010014
60. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
61. Cantuti-Castelvetri et al. NRP-1 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and infectivity. Science (1979). 2020;370:856-860.
62. McFarland AJ, Yousuf MS, Shiers S, Price TJ. Neurobiology of SARS-CoV-2 interactions with the peripheral nervous system: Implications for COVID-19 and pain. Pain Rep. 2021;6(1). doi:10.1097/PR9.0000000000000885
63. Sriwastava S, Tandon M, Podury S, et al. COVID-19 and neuroinflammation: a literature review of relevant neuroimaging and CSF markers in central nervous system inflammatory disorders from SARS-COV2. J Neurol. 2021;268(12):4448-4478. doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10611-9
64. Khalil M, Teunissen CE, Otto M, et al. Neurofilaments as biomarkers in neurological disorders. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(10):577-589. doi:10.1038/s41582-018-0058-z
65. Magdy R, Eid RA, Fathy W, et al. Title of the Article: Characteristics and Risk Factors of Persistent Neuropathic Pain in Recovered COVID-19 Patients. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7478-7008
66. Saif DS, Ibrahem RA, Eltabl MA. Prevalence of peripheral neuropathy and myopathy in patients post-COVID-19 infection. Int J Rheum Dis. 2022;25(11):1246-1253. doi:10.1111/1756-185X.14409
67. Bax F, Lettieri C, Marini A, et al. Clinical and neurophysiological characterization of muscular weakness in severe COVID-19. doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05110-8/Published
68. Maury A, Lyoubi A, Peiffer-Smadja N, de Broucker T, Meppiel E. Neurological manifestations associated with SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses: A narrative review for clinicians. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2021;177(1-2):51-64. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2020.10.001
69. Fletcher SN, Kennedy DD, Ghosh IR, et al. Persistent neuromuscular and neurophysiologic abnormalities in long-term survivors of prolonged critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(4):1012-1016. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000053651.38421.D9
70. Yachou Y, El Idrissi A, Belapasov V, Ait Benali S. Neuroinvasion, neurotropic, and neuroinflammatory events of SARS-CoV-2: understanding the neurological manifestations in COVID-19 patients. doi:10.1007/s10072-020-04575-3/Published
71. Wu Y, Xu X, Chen Z, et al. Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:18-22. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.031
72. Herrero-Montes M, Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Ferrer-Pargada D, et al. Prevalence of Neuropathic Component in Post-COVID Pain Symptoms in Previously Hospitalized COVID-19 Survivors. Int J Clin Pract. 2022;2022:3532917. doi:10.1155/2022/3532917
73. Fernández-De-las-peñas C, Valera-Calero JA, Herrero-Montes M, et al. The Self-Reported Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (S-LANSS) and PainDETECT Questionnaires in COVID-19 Survivors with Post-COVID Pain. Viruses. 2022;14(7). doi:10.3390/v14071486
74. Carfì A, Bernabei R, Landi F. Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association. 2020;324(6):603-605. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.12603
75. Groff D, Sun A, Ssentongo AE, et al. Short-term and Long-term Rates of Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Systematic Review. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(10). doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.28568
76. Premraj L, Kannapadi N V., Briggs J, et al. Mid and long-term neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome: A meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2022;434. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2022.120162
77. Malik GR, Wolfe AR, Soriano R, et al. Injury-prone: peripheral nerve injuries associated with prone positioning for COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. Br J Anaesth. 2020;125(6):e478-e480. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2020.08.045
78. Li NY, Murthy NK, Franz CK, et al. Upper Extremity Neuropathies Following Severe COVID-19 Infection: A Multicenter Case Series. World Neurosurg. 2023;171:e391-e397. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2022.12.027
79. Miriam Michaelson N, Malhotra A, Wang Z, et al. Peripheral neurological complications during COVID-19: A single center experience. J Neurol Sci. 2022;434. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2021.120118
80. Needham E, Newcombe V, Michell A, et al. Mononeuritis multiplex: an unexpectedly frequent feature of severe COVID-19. J Neurol. 2021;268(8):2685-2689. doi:10.1007/s00415-020-10321-8
81. Bellinghausen AL, Labuzetta JN, Chu F, Novelli F, Rodelo AR, Owens RL. Lessons from an ICU recovery clinic: Two cases of meralgia paresthetica after prone positioning to treat COVID-19-associated ARDS and modification of unit practices. Crit Care. 2020;24(1). doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03289-4
82. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Terminology | International Association for the Study of Pain. (s.f.). https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/?ItemNumber=1698.
83. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Parás-Bravo P, Ferrer-Pargada D, et al. Sensitization symptoms are associated with psychological and cognitive variables in COVID-19 survivors exhibiting post-COVID pain. Pain Practice. 2023;23(1):23-31. doi:10.1111/papr.13146
84. Boadas-Vaello P, Castany S, Homs J, Álvarez-Pérez B, Deulofeu M, Verdú E. Neuroplasticity of ascending and descending pathways after somatosensory system injury: Reviewing knowledge to identify neuropathic pain therapeutic targets. Spinal Cord. 2016;54(5):330-340. doi:10.1038/sc.2015.225
2. Verity R, Okell LC, Dorigatti I, et al. Estimates of the severity of coronavirus disease 2019: a model-based analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(6):669-677. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30243-7
3. Stowe J, Andrews N, Kirsebom F, Ramsay M, Bernal JL. Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against Omicron and Delta hospitalisation, a test negative case-control study. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1). doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33378-7
4. Kemp HI, Corner E, Colvin LA. Chronic pain after COVID-19: implications for rehabilitation. Br J Anaesth. 2020;125(4):436-440. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2020.05.021
5. Elliott D, Davidson JE, Harvey MA, et al. Exploring the Scope of Post–Intensive Care Syndrome Therapy and Care. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(12):2518-2526. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000525
6. Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: Report from a stakeholders’ conference. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(2):502-509. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e318232da75
7. Kemp HI, Laycock H, Costello A, Brett SJ. Chronic pain in critical care survivors: a narrative review. Br J Anaesth. 2019;123(2):e372-e384. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.025
8. Rousseau AF, Prescott HC, Brett SJ, et al. Long-term outcomes after critical illness: recent insights. Crit Care. 2021;25(1):108. doi:10.1186/s13054-021-03535-3
9. Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H. Evidence of the COVID-19 Virus Targeting the CNS: Tissue Distribution, Host-Virus Interaction, and Proposed Neurotropic Mechanisms. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2020;11(7):995-998. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00122
10. Terminology | International Association for the Study of Pain. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Accedido el 19 de mayo de 2023. https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/.
11. Post COVID-19 condition (Long COVID). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed March 1, 2023. https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/post-covid-19-condition.
12. Cabrera Martimbianco AL, Pacheco RL, Bagattini ÂM, Riera R. Frequency, signs and symptoms, and criteria adopted for long COVID-19: A systematic review. Int J Clin Pract. 2021;75(10). doi:10.1111/ijcp.14357
13. Novak P, Mukerji SS, Alabsi HS, et al. Multisystem Involvement in Post-Acute Sequelae of Coronavirus Disease 19. Ann Neurol. 2022;91(3):367-379. doi:10.1002/ana.26286
14. Jensen MP, Chodroff MJ, Dworkin RH. The impact of neuropathic pain on health-related quality of life: Review and implications. Neurology. 2007;68(15):1178-1182. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000259085.61898.9e
15. Torrance N, Smith BH, Bennett MI, Lee AJ. The Epidemiology of Chronic Pain of Predominantly Neuropathic Origin. Results From a General Population Survey. Journal of Pain. 2006;7(4):281-289. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2005.11.008
16. Colloca L, Ludman T, Bouhassira D, et al. Neuropathic pain. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.2
17. Attal N, Lanteri-Minet M, Laurent B, Fermanian J, Bouhassira D. The specific disease burden of neuropathic pain: Results of a French nationwide survey. Pain. 2011;152(12):2836-2843. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2011.09.014
18. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. Published online March 29, 2021:n71. doi:10.1136/bmj.n71
19. Mitsikostas DD, Moka E, Orrillo E, et al. Neuropathic Pain in Neurologic Disorders: A Narrative Review. Cureus. Published online February 21, 2022. doi:10.7759/cureus.22419
20. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Nijs J, Neblett R, et al. Phenotyping Post-COVID Pain as a Nociceptive, Neuropathic, or Nociplastic Pain Condition. Biomedicines. 2022;10(10). doi:10.3390/biomedicines10102562
21. Miller C, O’Sullivan J, Jeffrey J, Power D. Brachial Plexus Neuropathies during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Retrospective Case Series of 15 Patients in Critical Care. Phys Ther. 2021;101(1):1-8. doi:10.1093/ptj/pzaa191
22. Ojeda A, Calvo A, Cuñat T, et al. Characteristics and influence on quality of life of new-onset pain in critical COVID-19 survivors. European Journal of Pain (United Kingdom). 2022;26(3):680-694. doi:10.1002/ejp.1897
23. Guerrero M, Castroman P, Quiroga O, et al. Pain Management and COVID-19: A Latin American Perspective. Cureus. 2022;14(3):e23100. doi:10.7759/cureus.23100
24. Meyer-Frießem CH, Gierthmühlen J, Baron R, Sommer C, Üçeyler N, Enax-Krumova EK. Pain during and after COVID-19 in Germany and worldwide: A narrative review of current knowledge. Pain Rep. 2021;6(1). doi:10.1097/PR9.0000000000000893
25. Shanthanna H, Nelson AM, Kissoon N, Narouze S. The COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences for chronic pain: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2022;77(9):1039-1050. doi:10.1111/anae.15801
26. Cohen SP, Wang EJ, Doshi TL, Vase L, Cawcutt KA, Tontisirin N. Chronic pain and infection: mechanisms, causes, conditions, treatments, and controversies. BMJ Medicine. 2022;1(1):e000108. doi:10.1136/bmjmed-2021-000108
27. Petrucci E, Cofini V, Pizzi B, et al. Pain in critically ill COVID-19 patients: An Italian retrospective study. Open Medicine (Poland). 2022;17(1):1803-1810. doi:10.1515/med-2022-0600
28. Lucchini A, Russotto V, Barreca N, et al. Short and long-term complications due to standard and extended prone position cycles in CoViD-19 patients. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2022;69. doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2021.103158
29. Xiong W, Mu J, Guo J, et al. New onset neurologic events in people with COVID-19 in 3 regions in China. Neurology. 2020;95(11):E1479-E1487. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010034
30. Bohania N, Ish P, Nune A, Iyengar KP. Cranial neuropathy in COVID-19: A case series and review of literature. Infezioni in Medicina. 2021;29(4):609-613. doi:10.53854/liim-2904-15
31. Mahmood SBZ, Mushtaq MZ, Kanwar D, Ali SA. Lower limb axonal mononeuropathies as sequelae of COVID-19: a case report and review of literature. Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery. 2022;58(1). doi:10.1186/s41983-022-00458-w
32. Raahimi MM, Kane A, Moore CEG, Alareed AW. Late onset of Guillain-Barré syndrome following SARS-CoV-2 infection: part of “long COVID-19 syndrome”? BMJ Case Rep. 2021;14(1). doi:10.1136/bcr-2020-240178
33. Woltsche JN, Horwath-Winter J, Dorn C, et al. Neuropathic Corneal Pain as Debilitating Manifestation of LONG-COVID. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. Published online July 7, 2022:1-3. doi:10.1080/09273948.2022.2090963
34. Correia AO, Feitosa PWG, Moreira JL de S, Nogueira SÁR, Fonseca RB, Nobre MEP. Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 and other coronaviruses: A systematic review. Neurol Psychiatry Brain Res. 2020;37:27-32. doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2020.05.008
35. Baumbach P, Götz T, Günther A, Weiss T, Meissner W. Chronic intensive care-related pain: Exploratory analysis on predictors and influence on health-related quality of life. European Journal of Pain (United Kingdom). 2018;22(2):402-413. doi:10.1002/ejp.1129
36. Baumbach P, Götz T, Günther A, Weiss T, Meissner W. Prevalence and characteristics of chronic intensive care-related pain: The role of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(6):1129-1137. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001635
37. Koster-Brouwer ME, Rijsdijk M, Van Os WKM, et al. Occurrence and Risk Factors of Chronic Pain after Critical Illness. Crit Care Med. Published online 2020:680-687. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000004259
38. Wilder-Smith OHG, Arendt-Nielsen L. Postoperative Hyperalgesia. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(3):601-607. doi:10.1097/00000542-200603000-00028
39. Fletcher D, Stamer UM, Pogatzki-Zahn E, et al. Chronic postsurgical pain in Europe: An observational study. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32(10):725-734. doi:10.1097/EJA.0000000000000319
40. Vanhorebeek I, Latronico N, Van den Berghe G. ICU-acquired weakness. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(4):637-653. doi:10.1007/s00134-020-05944-4
41. Bayman EO, Brennan TJ. Incidence and Severity of Chronic Pain at 3 and 6 Months After Thoracotomy: Meta-Analysis. J Pain. 2014;15(9):887-897. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2014.06.005
42. Battle CE, Lovett S, Hutchings H. Chronic pain in survivors of critical illness: A retrospective analysis of incidence and risk factors. Crit Care. 2013;17(3). doi:10.1186/cc12746
43. Fan E, Dowdy DW, Colantuoni E, et al. Physical complications in acute lung injury survivors: A two-year longitudinal prospective study. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(4):849-859. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000040
44. Kress JP, Hall JB. ICU-Acquired Weakness and Recovery from Critical Illness. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;370(17):1626-1635. doi:10.1056/nejmra1209390
45. Stevens RD, Dowdy DW, Michaels RK, Mendez-Tellez PA, Pronovost PJ, Needham DM. Neuromuscular dysfunction acquired in critical illness: A systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(11):1876-1891. doi:10.1007/s00134-007-0772-2
46. Zorowitz RD. ICU–Acquired Weakness: A Rehabilitation Perspective of Diagnosis, Treatment, and Functional Management. Chest. 2016;150(4):966-971. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2016.06.006
47. Yang T, Li Z, Jiang L, Wang Y, Xi X. Risk factors for intensive care unit-acquired weakness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2018;138(2):104-114. doi:10.1111/ane.12964
48. Frithiof R, Rostami E, Kumlien E, et al. Critical illness polyneuropathy, myopathy and neuronal biomarkers in COVID-19 patients: A prospective study. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2021;132(7):1733-1740. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2021.03.016
49. Cabañes-Martínez L, Villadóniga M, González-Rodríguez L, et al. Neuromuscular involvement in COVID-19 critically ill patients. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2020;131(12):2809-2816. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2020.09.017
50. Zupanc A, Vidmar G, Majdič N, Novak P. Health-related quality-of-life during rehabilitation in patients with critical illness neuropathy/myopathy after severe coronavirus disease 2019. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 2023;46(1):53-60. doi:10.1097/MRR.0000000000000558
51. Koryürek ÖM, Kalkan G. A new alternative therapy in dermatology: Tocilizumab. Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2016;35(2):145-152. doi:10.3109/15569527.2015.1049356
52. Finsterer J, Scorza FA, Scorza CA, Fiorini C. Peripheral neuropathy in COVID-19 is due to immune-mechanisms, pre-existing risk factors, anti-viral drugs, or bedding in the Intensive Care Unit. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2021;79(10):924-928. doi:10.1590/0004-282X-ANP-2021-0030
53. Kushlaf HA. Emerging Toxic Neuropathies and Myopathies. Neurol Clin. 2011;29(3):679-687. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2011.05.009
54. Vlake JH, Van Genderen ME, Schut A, et al. Patients suffering from psychological impairments following critical illness are in need of information. J Intensive Care. 2020;8(1). doi:10.1186/s40560-019-0422-0
55. Schwab K, Schwitzer E, Qadir N. Postacute Sequelae of COVID-19 Critical Illness. Crit Care Clin. 2022;38(3):455-472. doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2022.01.001
56. Fishbain DA, Pulikal A, Lewis JE, Gao J. Chronic Pain Types Differ in Their Reported Prevalence of Post -Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and There Is Consistent Evidence That Chronic Pain Is Associated with PTSD: An Evidence-Based Structured Systematic Review. Pain Medicine. Published online May 17, 2016:pnw065. doi:10.1093/pm/pnw065
57. Linton SJ, Bergbom S. Understanding the link between depression and pain. Scand J Pain. 2011;2(2):47-54. doi:10.1016/j.sjpain.2011.01.005
58. Williams LD, Zis P. COVID-19-Related Neuropathic Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4). doi:10.3390/jcm12041672
59. Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Dubeau P, et al. Human coronaviruses and other respiratory viruses: Underestimated opportunistic pathogens of the central nervous system? Viruses. 2019;12(1). doi:10.3390/v12010014
60. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
61. Cantuti-Castelvetri et al. NRP-1 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and infectivity. Science (1979). 2020;370:856-860.
62. McFarland AJ, Yousuf MS, Shiers S, Price TJ. Neurobiology of SARS-CoV-2 interactions with the peripheral nervous system: Implications for COVID-19 and pain. Pain Rep. 2021;6(1). doi:10.1097/PR9.0000000000000885
63. Sriwastava S, Tandon M, Podury S, et al. COVID-19 and neuroinflammation: a literature review of relevant neuroimaging and CSF markers in central nervous system inflammatory disorders from SARS-COV2. J Neurol. 2021;268(12):4448-4478. doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10611-9
64. Khalil M, Teunissen CE, Otto M, et al. Neurofilaments as biomarkers in neurological disorders. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(10):577-589. doi:10.1038/s41582-018-0058-z
65. Magdy R, Eid RA, Fathy W, et al. Title of the Article: Characteristics and Risk Factors of Persistent Neuropathic Pain in Recovered COVID-19 Patients. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7478-7008
66. Saif DS, Ibrahem RA, Eltabl MA. Prevalence of peripheral neuropathy and myopathy in patients post-COVID-19 infection. Int J Rheum Dis. 2022;25(11):1246-1253. doi:10.1111/1756-185X.14409
67. Bax F, Lettieri C, Marini A, et al. Clinical and neurophysiological characterization of muscular weakness in severe COVID-19. doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05110-8/Published
68. Maury A, Lyoubi A, Peiffer-Smadja N, de Broucker T, Meppiel E. Neurological manifestations associated with SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses: A narrative review for clinicians. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2021;177(1-2):51-64. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2020.10.001
69. Fletcher SN, Kennedy DD, Ghosh IR, et al. Persistent neuromuscular and neurophysiologic abnormalities in long-term survivors of prolonged critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(4):1012-1016. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000053651.38421.D9
70. Yachou Y, El Idrissi A, Belapasov V, Ait Benali S. Neuroinvasion, neurotropic, and neuroinflammatory events of SARS-CoV-2: understanding the neurological manifestations in COVID-19 patients. doi:10.1007/s10072-020-04575-3/Published
71. Wu Y, Xu X, Chen Z, et al. Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;87:18-22. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.031
72. Herrero-Montes M, Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Ferrer-Pargada D, et al. Prevalence of Neuropathic Component in Post-COVID Pain Symptoms in Previously Hospitalized COVID-19 Survivors. Int J Clin Pract. 2022;2022:3532917. doi:10.1155/2022/3532917
73. Fernández-De-las-peñas C, Valera-Calero JA, Herrero-Montes M, et al. The Self-Reported Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (S-LANSS) and PainDETECT Questionnaires in COVID-19 Survivors with Post-COVID Pain. Viruses. 2022;14(7). doi:10.3390/v14071486
74. Carfì A, Bernabei R, Landi F. Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association. 2020;324(6):603-605. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.12603
75. Groff D, Sun A, Ssentongo AE, et al. Short-term and Long-term Rates of Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Systematic Review. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(10). doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.28568
76. Premraj L, Kannapadi N V., Briggs J, et al. Mid and long-term neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome: A meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2022;434. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2022.120162
77. Malik GR, Wolfe AR, Soriano R, et al. Injury-prone: peripheral nerve injuries associated with prone positioning for COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. Br J Anaesth. 2020;125(6):e478-e480. doi:10.1016/j.bja.2020.08.045
78. Li NY, Murthy NK, Franz CK, et al. Upper Extremity Neuropathies Following Severe COVID-19 Infection: A Multicenter Case Series. World Neurosurg. 2023;171:e391-e397. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2022.12.027
79. Miriam Michaelson N, Malhotra A, Wang Z, et al. Peripheral neurological complications during COVID-19: A single center experience. J Neurol Sci. 2022;434. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2021.120118
80. Needham E, Newcombe V, Michell A, et al. Mononeuritis multiplex: an unexpectedly frequent feature of severe COVID-19. J Neurol. 2021;268(8):2685-2689. doi:10.1007/s00415-020-10321-8
81. Bellinghausen AL, Labuzetta JN, Chu F, Novelli F, Rodelo AR, Owens RL. Lessons from an ICU recovery clinic: Two cases of meralgia paresthetica after prone positioning to treat COVID-19-associated ARDS and modification of unit practices. Crit Care. 2020;24(1). doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03289-4
82. International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Terminology | International Association for the Study of Pain. (s.f.). https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/?ItemNumber=1698.
83. Fernández-de-las-Peñas C, Parás-Bravo P, Ferrer-Pargada D, et al. Sensitization symptoms are associated with psychological and cognitive variables in COVID-19 survivors exhibiting post-COVID pain. Pain Practice. 2023;23(1):23-31. doi:10.1111/papr.13146
84. Boadas-Vaello P, Castany S, Homs J, Álvarez-Pérez B, Deulofeu M, Verdú E. Neuroplasticity of ascending and descending pathways after somatosensory system injury: Reviewing knowledge to identify neuropathic pain therapeutic targets. Spinal Cord. 2016;54(5):330-340. doi:10.1038/sc.2015.225