Teachers’ Distress Amid COVID-19: Examining the Effects of Job Satisfaction and Efficacy, Confidence in Protective Behaviors, and Virus Anxiety
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study examines survey data collected from teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic to understand how they experienced non-specific psychological distress. This analysis focuses on the role of job satisfaction and efficacy, confidence in the use of protective behaviors such as masking, and levels of virus anxiety. In addition, we consider group differences or inequalities between different demographic subpopulations. Results suggest that levels of psychological distress were most highly related to teachers' levels of virus anxiety and to a lesser extent, their levels of job satisfaction and efficacy. While we find some weak support for differences in distress based on race and gender, and for confidence in protective behaviors, these effects are removed when controlling for virus anxiety and job satisfaction and efficacy. We discuss implications that identify possible solutions to mitigate teachers’ distress levels.
Article Details
How to Cite
FULKERSON, Gregory M. et al.
Teachers’ Distress Amid COVID-19: Examining the Effects of Job Satisfaction and Efficacy, Confidence in Protective Behaviors, and Virus Anxiety.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 11, nov. 2023.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/4834>. Date accessed: 16 may 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i11.4834.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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11. Heinrichs, G., Hahnel, C., & Schaper, N. The Challenges of Teaching Online: A Study on the Experiences of Teachers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Education. 2021;DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.629951.
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17. Pascoe MC, Hetrick SE, Parker AG. The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 2020;25(1):104-12.
18. Li JB, Yang A, Dou K, Cheung RY. Self-control moderates the association between perceived severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health problems among the Chinese public. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(13):4820.
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21. Schaufeli WB, Salanova M, González-Romá V, Bakker AB. The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies. 2002;3:71-92.
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23. Reizer A, Koslowsky M, Geffen L. Living in fear: The relationship between fear of COVID-19, distress, health, and marital satisfaction among Israeli women. Health Care for Women International. 2020;41(11-12):1273-93.
24. Robinson E, Daly M. Explaining the rise and fall of psychological distress during the COVID‐19 crisis in the United States: Longitudinal evidence from the Understanding America Study. British Journal of Health Psychology. 2021;26(2):570-87.
25. Simha A, Prasad R, Ahmed S, Rao NP. Effect of gender and clinical-financial vulnerability on mental distress due to COVID-19. Archives of Women's Mental Health. 2020;23:775-7.
26. Bigras N, Lemay L, Lehrer J, Charron A, Duval S, Robert-Mazaye C, Laurin EI. Early childhood educators’ perceptions of their emotional state, relationships with parents, challenges, and opportunities during the early stage of the pandemic. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2021;49:775-87.
27. Horiuchi S, Shinohara R, Otawa S, Akiyama Y, Ooka T, Kojima R, Yokomichi H, Miyake K, Yamagata Z. Caregivers’ mental distress and child health during the COVID-19 outbreak in Japan. PloS One. 2020;15(12):e0243702.
28. Lasher EG, Seale E, Fulkerson GM, Ravenhall S, Thomas AR, Gadomski AM. Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Local Public Health Workers in New York State. Public Health Reports. 2023;138(3):500-508. doi:10.1177/00333549231155471
29. Fulkerson GM, Thomas AR, McCarthy M, et al. Social capital as mediating factor on COVID-19 induced psychological distress: The case of college students living through an outbreak. J Community Psychol. 2022;50(3):1521-1530. doi:10.1002/jcop.22731
30. Fulkerson G, Thomas A, Ho JM, et al. COVID-19 and Social Capital Loss: The Results of a Campus Outbreak. Soc Indic Res. 2023;165(3):867-878. doi:10.1007/s11205-022-03043-z
31. Hughes JW, Vander Horst A, Gibson GC, et al. Psychological distress of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Am Coll Health. 2023;71(4):981-983. doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1920953
32. Fatmawati, Dewantara JA. Social resilience of indigenous community on the border: Belief and confidence in anticipating the spread of COVID‐19 through the Besamsam custom in the Dayak community. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology. 2022;32(6):1216-33.
33. Wheat S, Gaughen S, Skeet J, et al. Climate change and COVID-19: Assessing the vulnerability and resilience of U.S. Indigenous communities to syndemic crises. J Clim Chang Health. 2022;8:100148. doi:10.1016/j.joclim.2022.100148
34. Chung S. Challenges and strategies for remote teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Education & Behavior. 2020;47(4), 541-545.
35. Liang L, Ren H, Cao R, Hu Y, Qin Z, Li C, Mei S. The effect of COVID-19 on youth mental health. Psychiatric Quarterly. 2020;91:841-52.
36. Matiz A, Fabbro F, Paschetto A, Cantone D, Paolone AR, Crescentini C. Positive impact of mindfulness meditation on mental health of female teachers during the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(18):6450.
37. Fox HB, Walter HL. More than strength from within: Cultivating teacher resilience during COVID-19. Current Issues in Education. 2022;23(1).
38. Herman KC, Sebastian J, Reinke WM, Huang FL. Individual and school predictors of teacher stress, coping, and wellness during the COVID-19 pandemic. School Psychology. 2021;36(6): 483.
39. Salas‐Pilco SZ, Yang Y, Zhang Z. Student engagement in online learning in Latin American higher education during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A systematic review. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2022;53(3):593-619.
40. Mishra S, Sahoo S, Pandey S. Research trends in online distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Distance Education. 2021;42(4):494-519.
41. Burić I, Macuka I, & Šimunić A. Emotional support as a buffer against burnout in teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open. 2020;2:DOI:100022.
42. Liu S, Yang L, Zhang C, Xiang YT, Liu Z, Hu S, Zhang B. Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(4):e17-8.
43. Petersen KH, Willer B, Peker M, & Caglar E. Teacher mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2021;39(2):200-210.
44. Lau SS, Shum EN, Man JO, Cheung ET, Amoah PA, Leung AY, Okan O, Dadaczynski K. A Cross-Sectional Study of the Perceived Stress, Well-Being and Their Relations with Work-Related Behaviours among Hong Kong School Leaders during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(23):15777.
45. Leksy K, Wójciak M, Gawron G, Muster R, Dadaczynski K, Okan O. Work-Related Stress of Polish School Principals during the COVID-19 Pandemic as a Risk Factor for Burnout. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023;20(1):805.
46. Cvetković VM, Nikolić N, Ocal A, Martinović J, Dragašević A. A predictive model of pandemic disaster fear caused by coronavirus (COVID-19): implications for decision-makers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(2):652.
47. Daniel E, Van Bergen P. Teacher burnout during COVID-19: associations with instructional self-efficacy but not emotion regulation. Teachers and Teaching. 2023;29(3):310-28.
48. Hyseni Duraku Z, Jaka M, & Jaka O. COVID-19 and teacher education: Challenges, opportunities and adaptation. European Journal of Education Studies. 2020;7(8):160-176.
49. Bartosiewicz A, Łuszczki E, Zaręba L, Kuchciak M, Bobula G, Dereń K, Król P. Assessment of job satisfaction, self-efficacy, and the level of professional burnout of primary and secondary school teachers in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic. PeerJ. 2022;10:e13349.
50. Padmanabhanunni A, Pretorius TB. Job satisfaction goes a long way: The mediating role of teaching satisfaction in the relationship between role stress and indices of psychological well-being in the time of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(24):17071.
51. Ashraf A, Anjum A, & Azam M. The impact of COVID-19 on education: Challenges and opportunities for remote learning and digital divide. Journal of Education and Practice. 2020;11(10):109-119.
52. Mukhtar K, Javed K, Arooj M, Sethi A. Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 2020;36(COVID19-S4):S27.
53. Saboowala R, Manghirmalani MP. Readiness of in-service teachers toward a blended learning approach as a learning pedagogy in the post-COVID-19 Era. Journal of Educational Technology Systems. 2021;50(1):9-23.
54. Weber M. Economy and society: A new translation. Harvard University Press; 2019.
2. Edyburn, D. Transforming student engagement in COVID-19 remote instruction: A research perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development. 2021;69:113-116.
3. Pressley T, Ha C, Learn E. Teacher stress and anxiety during COVID-19: An empirical study. School Psychology. 2021;36(5):367-76.
4. Westphal A, Kalinowski E, Hoferichter CJ, Vock M. K− 12 teachers' stress and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920326.
5. Clark S, McGrane A, Boyle N, Joksimovic N, Burke L, Rock N, O’Sullivan K. “You’re a teacher you’re a mother, you’re a worker”: Gender inequality during COVID‐19 in Ireland. Gender, Work & Organization. 2021;28(4):1352-62.
6. Czerniewicz L, Agherdien N, Badenhorst J, Belluigi D, Chambers T, Chili M, De Villiers M, Felix A, Gachago D, Gokhale C, Ivala E. A wake-up call: Equity, inequality and Covid-19 emergency remote teaching and learning. Postdigital science and education. 2020 Oct;2(3):946-67.
7. Cakmak E & Ilhan M. The effects of COVID-19 on the teacher burnout: A case study of Turkey. Journal of Education and Learning. 2021;10(1): 1-15.
8. Singh S, Roy D, Sinha K, Parveen S, Sharma G., & Joshi G. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on mental health of children and adolescents: A narrative review with recommendations. Psychiatry Research. 2020;293:113429.
9. Zhai Y. & Du X. Trends and prevalence of suicide 2017–2021 and its association with COVID-19: Interrupted time series analysis of a national sample of college students in the United States. Psychiatry Research. 2022;316:114796.
10. Alkhamees, A. A., Alzahrani, M. K., Aljohani, K. A., & Almutairi, A. M. The psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic on teachers in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2021;28(1):427-433.
11. Heinrichs, G., Hahnel, C., & Schaper, N. The Challenges of Teaching Online: A Study on the Experiences of Teachers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Education. 2021;DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.629951.
12. Ogodo JA, Simon M., Morris D, Akubo M. Examining K-12 teachers' digital competency and technology self-efficacy during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Higher Education Theory & Practice. 2021;21(11):13-27.
13. Lai Y, Chen J, & Lin, Y. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on teacher well-being: Evidence from Taiwan. Children and Youth Services Review. 2021;120:DOI 105779.
14. Oosterhoff B, et al. Adolescents’ motivations to engage in social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic: Associations with mental and social health. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2020;67(2):179–185. Web.
15. DeLongis A, Holtzman S. Coping in context: The role of stress, social support, and personality in coping. Journal of Personality. 2005;73(6):1633-56.
16. Dutta S, Ambwani S, Lal H, Ram K, Mishra G, Kumar T, Varthya SB. The satisfaction level of undergraduate medical and nursing students regarding distant preclinical and clinical teaching amidst COVID-19 across India. Advances in Medical Education and Practice. 2021; 2:113-22.
17. Pascoe MC, Hetrick SE, Parker AG. The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 2020;25(1):104-12.
18. Li JB, Yang A, Dou K, Cheung RY. Self-control moderates the association between perceived severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health problems among the Chinese public. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(13):4820.
19. Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe L, et al. Short Screening Scales to Monitor Population Prevalences and Trends in Nonspecific Psychological Distress [paper]. Cambridge (MA): Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School. 2000.
20. Prochaska JJ, Sung HY, Max W, Shi Y, Ong M. Validity study of the K6 scale as a measure of moderate mental distress based on mental health treatment need and utilization. International journal of methods in psychiatric research. 2012;21(2):88-97.
21. Schaufeli WB, Salanova M, González-Romá V, Bakker AB. The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies. 2002;3:71-92.
22. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales. J Anxiety Disord. 2020;72:102232. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102232
23. Reizer A, Koslowsky M, Geffen L. Living in fear: The relationship between fear of COVID-19, distress, health, and marital satisfaction among Israeli women. Health Care for Women International. 2020;41(11-12):1273-93.
24. Robinson E, Daly M. Explaining the rise and fall of psychological distress during the COVID‐19 crisis in the United States: Longitudinal evidence from the Understanding America Study. British Journal of Health Psychology. 2021;26(2):570-87.
25. Simha A, Prasad R, Ahmed S, Rao NP. Effect of gender and clinical-financial vulnerability on mental distress due to COVID-19. Archives of Women's Mental Health. 2020;23:775-7.
26. Bigras N, Lemay L, Lehrer J, Charron A, Duval S, Robert-Mazaye C, Laurin EI. Early childhood educators’ perceptions of their emotional state, relationships with parents, challenges, and opportunities during the early stage of the pandemic. Early Childhood Education Journal. 2021;49:775-87.
27. Horiuchi S, Shinohara R, Otawa S, Akiyama Y, Ooka T, Kojima R, Yokomichi H, Miyake K, Yamagata Z. Caregivers’ mental distress and child health during the COVID-19 outbreak in Japan. PloS One. 2020;15(12):e0243702.
28. Lasher EG, Seale E, Fulkerson GM, Ravenhall S, Thomas AR, Gadomski AM. Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Local Public Health Workers in New York State. Public Health Reports. 2023;138(3):500-508. doi:10.1177/00333549231155471
29. Fulkerson GM, Thomas AR, McCarthy M, et al. Social capital as mediating factor on COVID-19 induced psychological distress: The case of college students living through an outbreak. J Community Psychol. 2022;50(3):1521-1530. doi:10.1002/jcop.22731
30. Fulkerson G, Thomas A, Ho JM, et al. COVID-19 and Social Capital Loss: The Results of a Campus Outbreak. Soc Indic Res. 2023;165(3):867-878. doi:10.1007/s11205-022-03043-z
31. Hughes JW, Vander Horst A, Gibson GC, et al. Psychological distress of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Am Coll Health. 2023;71(4):981-983. doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1920953
32. Fatmawati, Dewantara JA. Social resilience of indigenous community on the border: Belief and confidence in anticipating the spread of COVID‐19 through the Besamsam custom in the Dayak community. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology. 2022;32(6):1216-33.
33. Wheat S, Gaughen S, Skeet J, et al. Climate change and COVID-19: Assessing the vulnerability and resilience of U.S. Indigenous communities to syndemic crises. J Clim Chang Health. 2022;8:100148. doi:10.1016/j.joclim.2022.100148
34. Chung S. Challenges and strategies for remote teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Education & Behavior. 2020;47(4), 541-545.
35. Liang L, Ren H, Cao R, Hu Y, Qin Z, Li C, Mei S. The effect of COVID-19 on youth mental health. Psychiatric Quarterly. 2020;91:841-52.
36. Matiz A, Fabbro F, Paschetto A, Cantone D, Paolone AR, Crescentini C. Positive impact of mindfulness meditation on mental health of female teachers during the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(18):6450.
37. Fox HB, Walter HL. More than strength from within: Cultivating teacher resilience during COVID-19. Current Issues in Education. 2022;23(1).
38. Herman KC, Sebastian J, Reinke WM, Huang FL. Individual and school predictors of teacher stress, coping, and wellness during the COVID-19 pandemic. School Psychology. 2021;36(6): 483.
39. Salas‐Pilco SZ, Yang Y, Zhang Z. Student engagement in online learning in Latin American higher education during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A systematic review. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2022;53(3):593-619.
40. Mishra S, Sahoo S, Pandey S. Research trends in online distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Distance Education. 2021;42(4):494-519.
41. Burić I, Macuka I, & Šimunić A. Emotional support as a buffer against burnout in teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open. 2020;2:DOI:100022.
42. Liu S, Yang L, Zhang C, Xiang YT, Liu Z, Hu S, Zhang B. Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(4):e17-8.
43. Petersen KH, Willer B, Peker M, & Caglar E. Teacher mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2021;39(2):200-210.
44. Lau SS, Shum EN, Man JO, Cheung ET, Amoah PA, Leung AY, Okan O, Dadaczynski K. A Cross-Sectional Study of the Perceived Stress, Well-Being and Their Relations with Work-Related Behaviours among Hong Kong School Leaders during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(23):15777.
45. Leksy K, Wójciak M, Gawron G, Muster R, Dadaczynski K, Okan O. Work-Related Stress of Polish School Principals during the COVID-19 Pandemic as a Risk Factor for Burnout. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023;20(1):805.
46. Cvetković VM, Nikolić N, Ocal A, Martinović J, Dragašević A. A predictive model of pandemic disaster fear caused by coronavirus (COVID-19): implications for decision-makers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(2):652.
47. Daniel E, Van Bergen P. Teacher burnout during COVID-19: associations with instructional self-efficacy but not emotion regulation. Teachers and Teaching. 2023;29(3):310-28.
48. Hyseni Duraku Z, Jaka M, & Jaka O. COVID-19 and teacher education: Challenges, opportunities and adaptation. European Journal of Education Studies. 2020;7(8):160-176.
49. Bartosiewicz A, Łuszczki E, Zaręba L, Kuchciak M, Bobula G, Dereń K, Król P. Assessment of job satisfaction, self-efficacy, and the level of professional burnout of primary and secondary school teachers in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic. PeerJ. 2022;10:e13349.
50. Padmanabhanunni A, Pretorius TB. Job satisfaction goes a long way: The mediating role of teaching satisfaction in the relationship between role stress and indices of psychological well-being in the time of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(24):17071.
51. Ashraf A, Anjum A, & Azam M. The impact of COVID-19 on education: Challenges and opportunities for remote learning and digital divide. Journal of Education and Practice. 2020;11(10):109-119.
52. Mukhtar K, Javed K, Arooj M, Sethi A. Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 2020;36(COVID19-S4):S27.
53. Saboowala R, Manghirmalani MP. Readiness of in-service teachers toward a blended learning approach as a learning pedagogy in the post-COVID-19 Era. Journal of Educational Technology Systems. 2021;50(1):9-23.
54. Weber M. Economy and society: A new translation. Harvard University Press; 2019.