Implications of Untreated Hypertension on Chronic Kidney Disease: A Literature Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
The untreated progression of hypertension holds significant implications for the development and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Therefore, necessitating the implementation of strategic hypertension management measures to mitigate its impact on chronic kidney disease. This review highlights the necessity of precise diagnostic methodologies that employ oscillometric equipment and advocates for pharmacological interventions, the incorporation of combination therapies such as the "Polypill" to effectively control hypertension, and lifestyle adjustments. The pivotal role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in hypertension is acknowledged, noting the importance of stringent blood pressure regulation and the utilization of RAAS-blocking agents to attenuate its association with chronic kidney disease. A comprehensive analysis is provided on the effects of various classes of antihypertensive medications on renal function, encompassing diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers (CCBs), and nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Additionally, both non-invasive and invasive therapeutic modalities for managing resistant hypertension in CKD patients are examined, alongside discussions on prognostic indicators and outcomes across different stages of chronic kidney disease. Lifestyle modifications such as sodium restriction, weight management, and moderation of alcohol intake are assessed for their influence on chronic kidney disease prognosis. The review also extensively delves into the impact of ethnicity on the prevalence and outcomes of hypertension-induced CKD, highlighting disparities and distinctive trends among diverse ethnic cohorts including Indian, African American, Middle Eastern, Chinese, Pacific Islander, Native American, and Hispanic populations. Additionally, this study addresses the intricate relationship between cardiovascular abnormalities and CKD, the significance of gastrointestinal disorders, and the importance of multidisciplinary approaches in CKD management. Furthermore, insights are provided into the significance of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for identifying renal injury and chronic kidney disease progression alongside factors influencing adverse prognosis and life expectancy in CKD patients. This study accentuates the importance of tailored treatment assessments and interventions to address varied patterns and obstacles within ethnic groups, aiming to optimize chronic kidney disease management strategies and reduce health disparities.
Keywords:
Hypertension, high blood pressure, chronic kidney disease, atherosclerosis, renal failure, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, kidney disease markers, proteinuria, end-stage renal disease
Article Details
How to Cite
ZAMAN, Mustafa Abrar et al.
Implications of Untreated Hypertension on Chronic Kidney Disease: A Literature Review.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 4, apr. 2024.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/5214>. Date accessed: 27 july 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i4.5214.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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2. Carey RM, Wright JT, Taler SJ, Whelton PK. Guideline-Driven Management of Hypertension. Circ Res. 2021;128(7):827-846. doi:10.1161/ CIRCRESAHA.121.318083
3. Wald NJ, Law MR. A strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease by more than 80%. BMJ. 2003;326(7404):1419. doi:10.1136/bmj. 326.7404.1419
4. Patel S, Rauf A, Khan H, Abu-Izneid T. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS): The ubiquitous system for homeostasis and pathologies. Biomed Pharmacother Biomedecine Pharmacother. 2017;94:317-325. do i:10.1016 /j.biopha.2017.07.091
5. Remuzzi G, Perico N, Macia M, Ruggenenti P. The role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in the progression of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2005;(99):S57-65. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.09911.x
6. Blowey DL. Diuretics in the treatment of hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol Berl Ger. 2016; 31(12):2223-2233. doi:10.1007/s00467-016-3334-4
7. Jankowski J, Floege J, Fliser D, Böhm M, Marx N. Cardiovascular Disease in Chronic Kidney Disease. Circulation. 2021;143(11):115 7-1172. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120. 050686
8. Biffi A, Dell’Oro R, Quarti-Trevano F, et al. Effects of Renal Denervation on Sympathetic Nerve Traffic and Correlates in Drug-Resistant and Uncontrolled Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Hypertension. 2023;80(3):659-667. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.122.20503
9. Tonelli M, Wiebe N, James MT, et al. A population-based cohort study defines prognoses in severe chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2018;93(5):1217-1226. doi:10.101 6/j.kint.2017.12.013
10. Anchala R, Kannuri NK, Pant H, et al. Hypertension in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, awareness, and control of hypertension. J Hypertens. 2014;32 (6):1170.doi:10.1097/HJH.0000000000000146
11. McMahon EJ, Campbell KL, Bauer JD, Mudge DW. Altered dietary salt intake for people with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(2). doi:10.1002/146 51858.CD010070.pub2
12. Ravera M, Re M, Deferrari L, Vettoretti S, Deferrari G. Importance of Blood Pressure Control in Chronic Kidney Disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(4_suppl_2):S98. doi:10.168 1/ASN.2005121319
13. Tadic M, Cuspidi C, Hering D. Hypertension and cognitive dysfunction in elderly: blood pressure management for this global burden. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2016; 16(1):208. doi:10.1186/s12872-016-0386-0
14. Rahimi K, Emdin CA, MacMahon S. The Epidemiology of Blood Pressure and Its Worldwide Management. Circ Res. 2015;116( 6):925-936. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.304723
15. Arroyo JP, Ronzaud C, Lagnaz D, Staub O, Gamba G. Aldosterone Paradox: Differential Regulation of Ion Transport in Distal Nephron. Physiology. 2011;26(2):115-123. doi:10.1152/physiol.00049.2010
16. Kumar U, Wettersten N, Garimella PS. Cardiorenal Syndrome: Pathophysiology. Cardiol Clin. 2019;37(3):251-265. doi:10.1016 /j.ccl.2019.04.001
17. Elshafei A, Khidr EG, El-Husseiny AA, Gomaa MH. RAAS, ACE2 and COVID-19; a mechanistic review. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021;28( 11):6465-6470. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.07.003
18. Ma TK, Kam KK, Yan BP, Lam YY. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system blockade for cardiovascular diseases: current status. Br J Pharmacol. 2010;160(6):1273-1292. doi:10.11 11/j.1476-5381.2010.00750.x
19. Ameer OZ. Hypertension in chronic kidney disease: What lies behind the scene. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13. doi:10.3389/fphar. 2022.949260
20. Zamboli P, De Nicola L, Minutolo R, et al. Effect of furosemide on left ventricular mass in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients: a randomized controlled trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26(5):1575-1583. doi:10.109 3/ndt/gfq565
21. Casas JP, Chua W, Loukogeorgakis S, et al. Effect of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system and other antihypertensive drugs on renal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Lond Engl. 2005;366(9502):2 026-2033. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)67814-2
22. Ptinopoulou AG, Pikilidou MI, Lasaridis AN. The effect of antihypertensive drugs on chronic kidney disease: a comprehensive review. Hypertens Res Off J Jpn Soc Hypertens. 2013;36(2):91-101. doi:10.1038/hr .2012.157
23. Ohno S, Ishii A, Yanagita M, Yokoi H. Calcium channel blocker in patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2022;26(3):207-215. doi:10.1007/s10157-021 -02153-1
24. Lerma E, White WB, Bakris G. Effectiveness of nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in patients with diabetic kidney disease. Postgrad Med. 2023;135(3):2 24-233.doi:10.1080/00325481.2022.2060598
25. Vargas F, Romecín P, García-Guillén AI, et al. Flavonoids in Kidney Health and Disease. Front Physiol. 2018;9:394. doi:10.3389/fphys. 2018.00394
26. Gao Q, Tan NC, Lee ML, Hsu W, Choo J. Comparative effectiveness of first-line antihypertensive drug classes on the maintenance of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in real world primary care. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):21225. doi:10.1038/ s41598-023-48427-4
27. Sinha AD, Agarwal R. Clinical Pharmacology of Antihypertensive Therapy for the Treatment of Hypertension in CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol CJASN. 2019;14(5):75 7-764. doi:10.2215/CJN.04330418
28. Molnar MZ, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Lott EH, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker use, and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(7):650-658. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.050
29. Pugh D, Gallacher PJ, Dhaun N. Management of Hypertension in Chronic Kidney Disease. Drugs. 2019;79(4):365-379. doi:10.1007/s40265-019-1064-1
30. Delrue C, Speeckaert MM. Chronic Kidney Disease: Early Detection, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Implications. J Pers Med. 2023;13(10):1447. doi:10.3390/jpm13101447
31. Hakeem A, Bhatti S, Trevino AR, Samad Z, Chang SM. Non-invasive risk assessment in patients with chronic kidney disease. J Nucl Cardiol. 2011;18(3):472-485. doi:10.1007/s12 350-011-9359-y
32. Joo YS, Rim TH, Koh HB, et al. Non-invasive chronic kidney disease risk stratification tool derived from retina-based deep learning and clinical factors. Npj Digit Med. 2023;6(1):1-7. doi:10.1038/s41746-023-00860-5
33. Reddy YNV, Obokata M, Dean PG, Melenovsky V, Nath KA, Borlaug BA. Long-term cardiovascular changes following creation of arteriovenous fistula in patients with end stage renal disease. Eur Heart J. 2017;38(24):1913-1923. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx045
34. Fay KS, Cohen DL. Resistant Hypertension in People With CKD: A Review. Am J Kidney Dis Off J Natl Kidney Found. 2021;77(1):110-121. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.04.017
35. Sanders MF, Blankestijn PJ. Chronic Kidney Disease As a Potential Indication for Renal Denervation. Front Physiol. 2016;7:220. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00220
36. Aldiabat M, Alabdallah K, Kofahi A, Aziz S. Bilateral Nephrectomy, the Forgotten Measure in the Treatment of Refractory Hypertension in Patients With End-Stage Renal Disease: A Case Report and Literature Review. Cureus. 2020;12(7):e9031. doi:10.775 9/cureus.9031
37. Rey-García J, Townsend RR. Renal Denervation: A Review. Am J Kidney Dis Off J Natl Kidney Found. 2022;80(4):527-535. doi:1 0.1053/j.ajkd.2022.03.015
38. Gajulapalli RD, Chahine J, Rader F, Aneja A. Procedures and devices to treat resistant hypertension in chronic kidney disease. Cleve Clin J Med. 2020;87(7):435-443. doi:10.3949/ ccjm.87a.19099
39. van Rijn MHC, van de Luijtgaarden M, van Zuilen AD, et al. Prognostic models for chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and external validation. Nephrol Dial Transplant Off Publ Eur Dial Transpl Assoc - Eur Ren Assoc. 2021;3 6(10):1837-1850. doi:10.1093/n dt/gfaa155
40. Bian Z, Zhang Q, Shen L, Chen S. The influence of multidisciplinary team clinic on the prognosis of patients with chronic kidney disease. Exp Biol Med. 2022;247(10):815-821. doi:10.1177/15353702221077937
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