COVID Post-Infection Therapy: A Survey of Methods and Mechanisms
Main Article Content
Abstract
There has been a significant reduction in the number of COVID cases world-wide since the pandemic peaked in 2022. However, new strains have developed in the two years following the peak that are significantly different genetically from their predecessors. This, combined with public apathy concerning vaccination and other preventative measures, has led to periodic outbreaks. The problem has been particularly troublesome in the U.S. So, what options are available to an individual who has developed a breakthrough infection, or has become COVID-19 positive due to negligence? This publication covers the mechanisms and side effects of COVID antiviral and anti-inflammatory drugs, interleukins, interferons, and monoclonal antibodies. The chemistry of these diverse therapeutic agents is complex, but their pharmacology, biochemistry, and even their molecular structures, are often related. These relationships will be explained, and the associated terminology demystified.
Keywords:
COVID-19, antiviral drugs, anti-inflammatory drugs, interleukins, interferons, monoclonal antibodies
Article Details
How to Cite
ZITO, Richard R..
COVID Post-Infection Therapy: A Survey of Methods and Mechanisms.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 10, oct. 2024.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/5681>. Date accessed: 15 nov. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i10.5681.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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2. Qasmieh SA et al. The prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection and long COVID in U.S, adults during the BA.4, BA.5 surge, June-July 2022. Preventative Medicine, Apr. 2023. Accessed Mar. 20, 2023 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
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5. Prater E. The CDC has guided the U.S. COVID epidemic to a soft landing – a manufactured conclusion that flies in the face of science some experts say. Fortune, Health·Coronavirus, Aug. 21, 2022. Accessed Dec 21, 2022 https://fortune.com
6. Prater E. COVID is at or near record levels around the country. Scientists say one (pretty gross) indicator doesn’t lie. Fortune Well, July 26, 2022. Accessed Mar. 20, 2023 https://fortune.com
7. Shah S et al. Wastewater surveillance to infer COVID-19 transmission. NIH (National Institute of Health), 2023. Accessed Mar 20, 2023 www.ncbi.nih.gov
8. Nebraska Medicine. What COVID variants are going around in September 2023. Nebraska Medicine, Sept 7, 2023. Accessed Sept. 26, 2023 www.nebraskamed.com
9. Maxmen A. COVID booster may not reach most vulnerable. Arizona Daily Star, Sept 22, 2023, p. A1, A2.
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11. Zito RR. The Omicron Strain. Presented at the Annual International System Safety Conference, Aug. 28 - Sep. 1, 2023, Portland, Oregon, USA.
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18. Yin W, et al. Structural basis for inhibition of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from SARS-CoV-2 by remdesivir. Science, May 1, 2020; 368 (6498): 1499-1504. doi: 10.1126/Science.abc1560.
19. Sola I, Almazán F, Zúñiga S, Enjuanes L. Continuous and Discontinuous RNA Synthesis in Coronaviruses. Annu. Rev. Virol., Nov 2015; 2(1): 265-288. doi: 10.1146/annurev-virology-199114-055218, PMCID: PMC6025776 | NIHMSID, NIHMS975955 │ PMID: 26958916.
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23. Eastman RT, et al. Remdesivir: A Review of Its Discovery and Development Leading to Emergency Use Authorization for Treatment of COVID-19. ACS Cent. Sci., May 27, 2020; 6(5): 672-683. Published online 2020 May 4, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c00489, PMCID: PMC7202249 | PMID: 32483554.
24. Strauss JA, Strauss EG. Viruses and Human Disease, Academic Press, San Diego, 2002: 149, 201.
25. Zito RR. Vaccine Safety. J. System Safety, Fall 2021; 57(1): 10-25.
26. Longhitano L et al. Proteasome inhibitors as a possible therapy for SARS. NIH, May 2020. Accessed Oct 13, 2023 https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
27. Matrosovich MN, Matrosovich TY, Gray T, Roberts NA, Klenk HD. Neuraminidase Is Important for the Initiation of Influenza Virus Infection in Human Airway Epithelium. J. Virol., Nov 2004; 78(22): 12665-12667, doi:10.1128/JVI.78.22.12665-12667.2004, PMCID: PMC525087 | PMID:15507653. Accessed Nov 20, 2023 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
28. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. The Cell, 4th Ed., Garland Science, New York, NY, 2002: 148, 1412-1413.
29. Hopkins JS, McKay AB. Merck Covid-19 Pill Cuts Risks of Hospitalizations and Death. The Wall Street Journal, Oct 2-3, 2021; Vol. CCLXXVIII, No. 79: A1, A6.
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32. Wikipedia. Nirmatrelvir. 2023. Accessed Nov 27, 2023 https://en.m.wikipedia.org
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34. Wikipedia. Ritonavir. 2023. Accessed Nov 29, 2023 https://en.m.wikipedia.org
35. Loos NHC, Beijnen JH, Schinkel AH. The Mechanism-Based Inactivation of CYP3A4 by Ritonavir: What Mechanism? Int. J. Mol. Sci., Sept 2022; 23(17): 9866. Published online Aug 30 2022, doi: 10.3390/ijms23179866, PMCID: PMC9456214 │ PMID: 36077262.
36. Davydov R et al. The role of the proximal cysteine hydrogen bonding interaction in cytochrome P450 2B4 studied by cryoreduction/EPR/ENDOR spectroscopy. Biochemistry, Feb 16, 2016; 55(6): 869-883. Published online Feb. 3, 2016, Pubmed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. doi: 10.1021 /acs. biochem. 5b00744, PMCID: PMC4834902 | NIHMSID: NIHMS775304 | PMID: 26750753.
37. Zabirowicz ES, Tong TJ. “Pharmacology of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting”, in Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia, 3nd Ed., 2019. Available online from ScienceDirect. Accessed Dec 3, 2023 www.sciencedirect.com
38. Wikipedia. Dexamethasone. Nov 13, 2023. Accessed Dec 3, 2023 www.en.m.wikipedia.org
39. DrugBank. Dexamethasone. 2023. Accessed Dec 13, 2023 https://go.drugbank.com
40. Stroever SJ, et al. Medication Use Among Patients With COVID-19 in a Large National Dataset: Cerner Real-World Data. Clin. Ther. June 2021; 43(6): 173-196. Published online Apr. 15, 2021. Accessed Dec 13, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2 021.03.024, PMCID: PMC8049452 | PMID 33958234
41. Mueller B, Rabin RC (2020, June 17). Hope Meets Caution as Steroid Is Said to Reduce Virus Deaths. The New York Times, June 17, 2020; No. 58727: A1, A6.
42. NIH. Systemic Corticosteroids, in National Institute of Health COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines. NIH, July 21, 2023. Accessed Dec 2, 2023 www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov
43. NIH (2023b, Oct. 10). Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19. NIH, Oct 10, 2023. Accessed Dec 2, 2023 www.https://covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov
44. Wikipedia. Interleukin-2. Aug 12, 2023. Accessed Dec 19, 2023 https://en.m.wikipedia.org
45. Zhu ME, Wang Q, Zhou S, Wang B, Ke L, He P. Recombinant interleukin-2 stimulates lymphocyte recovery in patients with severe COVID-19. Published online in Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, Jan. 18, 2021; article number 227. Accessed Sept 30, 2021 https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.9658
46. Ramatillah DL, et al. Impact of cytokine storms on severity of COVID-19 disease in a private hospital in West Jakarta prior to vaccination. PLOS One, 17(1), e0262438, published online Jan. 25, 2022. Accessed 2023. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0 262438, PMCID: PMC8789122 | PMID: 35077495.
47. Yip YK, Barrowclough BS. Molecular Weight of Human Gamma Interferon Is Similar to that of Other Human Interferons. Science, Jan 22, 1982; 215(4531): 411-413. Accessed 2023 https://www.science.org.
48. Walter MR. The Role of Structure in the Biology of Interferon Signaling. Front. Immunol., Nov 12, 2020. Accessed 2023 https://www.frontiersin.org
49. Roizman B (1996). Multiplication. In Medical Microbiology, 4th Ed., Chapter 42, Baron S (editor), NIH, National Library of Medicine. Accessed Dec 22, 2023 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
50. NIH. COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines – Interferons. Accessed Dec 22, 2023 www.https://covid19treatmentguide lines.nih.gov
51. NIH. COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines: Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies. NIH, March 6, 2023. Accessed Dec 17, 2023 treatmentguidelines.nih.gov
52. Subbaraman N. Science misinformation alarms Francis Collins as he leaves top NIH job, Nature, Dec 3, 2021; 600: 372-373. Accessed Dec 19, 2022 www.nature.com. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/ d41586-021-03611-2.