A REVIEW ON EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PATHOPHYSOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF LONG COVID
Main Article Content
Abstract
Long COVID is a condition that emerges following SARS-CoV-2 infection and persists for at least three months, with recurrent symptoms of varying intensity. Approximately 10% of COVID-19 patients do not experience full recovery from the initial infection. Women and individuals who experienced severe COVID-19 are at a higher risk of developing Long COVID, as are certain ethnic groups and adults aged 50–59, who show higher prevalence rates. Initially, the virus replicates primarily in the upper respiratory tract, where there is high expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme-2. As infection progresses, it can spread to other organs. Many Long COVID symptoms appear to result from an overactive immune response rather than direct viral effects on tissues. Some studies suggest that dormant viruses may become reactivated, potentially contributing to increased autoantibody levels and worsening disease severity. Proposed mechanisms in Long COVID pathophysiology include dysfunctional mitochondrial metabolism, prion involvement, amyloid formation, and genetic factors. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the characteristics of long COVID, drawing on an analysis of available online literature.
Keywords:
Long COVID, SARS-CoV-2, ACE-2, Antibody, Autoimmunity
Article Details
How to Cite
CHOWDHURY, Soheli; CHOWDHURY, Majeedul H..
A REVIEW ON EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PATHOPHYSOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF LONG COVID.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 12, dec. 2024.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/6127>. Date accessed: 06 jan. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i12.6127.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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13. Yang X, Hou C, Shen Y, et al. (2022). Two-Year Health Outcomes in Hospitalized COVID-19 Survivors in China. JAMA Netw Open. 2022; 5(9): e2231790. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.31790
14. Wahlgren C, Forsberg G., Divanoglo A. et al.Two-year follow-up of patients with post-COVID-19 condition in Sweden: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2023; 28: doi: 10.1016/j.la nepe.2023.100595
15. Ballouz T, Menges D., Kaufmann M. et al.(2023). Post COVID-19 condition after Wildtype, Delta, and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection and prior vaccination: pooled analysis of two population-based cohorts. PLoS One. 2023;18(2): e0281429. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281429
16. Antonelli M, Pujol JC, Spector TD, Ourselin S, Steves CJ. (2022). Risk of long COVID associated with delta versus omicron variants of SARS-CoV-2. Lancet. 2022; 399(10343): 2263-2264. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00941-2
17. Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Notarte KI, Peligro PJ et al. Long-COVID symptoms in individuals infected with different SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern: a systematic review of the literature. Viruses. 2022; 14(12): 2629. doi: 10.3390/v14122629
18. Spudich S, Nath A. Nervous system consequences of COVID-19. Science. 2022; 375 (6578): 267. doi: 10.1126/science.abm2052.
19. Haffke M, Freitag H, Rudolf G. Endothelial dysfunction and altered endothelial biomarkers in patients with post-COVID-19 syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). J Transl Med. 2022; 20(1), 138. doi: 10.1186/s12967-022-03346-2
20. Nunes JM, Kruger A, Proal A, Kell DB, Pretorius E. The occurrence of hyperactivated platelets and fibrinaloid microclots in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/ CFS) Pharmaceuticals. 2022;15: 931. doi: 10.3390/ ph15080931
21. Gorący A, Rosik J, Szostak B, Ustianowski L. Ustianowska K , Gorący J. Human Cell Organelles in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: An Up-to-Date Overview. Viruses. 2022;14(5):1092. doi: 10.3390/v14051092
22. Frere JJ. Serafini RA, Pryce KD, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection in hamsters and humans results in lasting and unique systemic perturbations post recovery. Sci Transl Med. 28;14(664): doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abq3059.
23. Ziegler MF. Agencia FAPESP: 2013.
https://agencia.fapesp.br/long-covid-is-linked-to-persistent-damage-to-mitochondria-the-powerhouses-of-our-cells/50440
24. Kim S-J, Syed GH, Khan M. E, et al.. Hepatitis C virus triggers mitochondrial fission and attenuates apoptosis to promote viral persistence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2014;111 (17):6413. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1321114111.
25. Shi CS, Qi HY, Boularan C, et al. SARS-coronavirus open reading frame-9b suppresses innate immunity by targeting mitochondria and the MAVS/TRAF3/TRAF6 signalosome. J Immunol. 2014;193 (6):3080.
doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303196.
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