Colonizing Childbirth: The Adoption of Western Obstetrics in Hong Kong (1842-1910)
Main Article Content
Abstract
Since the sixteenth century, advancements in anatomy and Western medicine have facilitated male exploration of women’s bodies and intervention in women’s health issues, including childbirth. The medicalization of childbirth during the eighteenth century enabled men to exert control over birthing practices. This paradigm of “medicalized childbirth” was introduced to China in the early nineteenth century alongside the Protestant missionary movement. This article examines the introduction of Western obstetrics in Hong Kong. Following Hong Kong’s designation as a British colony in 1842, the colonial government largely neglected the medical needs of Chinese residents, thereby creating opportunities for medical missionaries. To navigate the cultural and gender barriers inherent in this context, Western physicians were compelled to make compromises regarding “gender politics” and “medical space” to render Western obstetrics a viable option for Chinese families. This process facilitated opportunities for women to receive medical training in Europe and the United States and enabled their participation in overseas medical missions. Furthermore, it opened pathways for Chinese women to enter the medical field as nurses and doctors. In the early twentieth century, as the colonial government intensified its efforts to reduce infant mortality, it relied on female missionary doctors and nurses to train Chinese maternity nurses to conduct home deliveries. This marked a significant increase in obstetric cases and culminated in implementing maternity regulations in 1910.
Keywords:
history of obstetrics, history of medicine, gender history, history of Hong Kong
Article Details
How to Cite
KANG, Jong Hyuk David.
Colonizing Childbirth: The Adoption of Western Obstetrics in Hong Kong (1842-1910).
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 3, mar. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/6303>. Date accessed: 06 apr. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v3i3.6303.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Wong CM. Lancet and Cross: Biographical Sketches of Fifty Pioneer Medical Missionaries in China. Council on Christian Medical Work; 1950.
2. Furth C. Concepts of pregnancy, childbirth, and infancy in Ch’ing dynasty China. J Asian Stud. 1987;46(1):7-35. doi:10.2307/2056664
3. Furth C. A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China’s Medical History. University of California Press; 1999:960-1665.
4. Bray F. Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. University of California Press; 1997. doi:10.1525/9780520919006
5. Leung AKC. Women practicing medicine in premodern China. In: Zurndorfer HT, ed. Chinese Women in the Imperial past: New Perspectives. Brill Academic Publishers; 1999:101-134.
6. Wu Y-L. Reproducing Women: Medicine, Metaphor, and Childbirth in Late Imperial China. University of California Press; 2010. doi:10.1525/9780520947610
7. Yip KC. Health and National Reconstruction in Nationalist China: the Development of Modern Health Service, 1928-1937. Association for Asian Studies; 1995.
8. Zhou CY. Female Bodies and the Nation: Strong Nations, Strong Races, and Women’s Health in Modern China (1895-1949). National Chengchi University Department of History; 2010.
9. Johnson TP. Childbirth in Republican China: Delivering Modernity. Lexington Books; 2011.
10. Tucker SW. Opportunities for women: the development of professional women’s medicine at Canton, China, 1879-1901. Womens Stud Int Forum. 1990;13(4):357-368.
doi:10.1016/0277-5395(90)90032-S
11. Shemo C. The Chinese Medical Ministries of Kang Cheng and Shi Meiyu, 1872-1937: On a Cross-Cultural Frontier of Gender, Race, and Nation. Lehigh University Press; 2011.
12. Wang HY. Refusing male physicians: the gender and body politics of missionary medicine in China, 1870s-1920s. Bull Inst Mod Hist Acad Sin. 2008;59:29-66.
13. Brown M. The training of native women as physicians. In: Records of Second Shantung Missionary Conference at Wei-Hien. The Presbyterian Mission Press; 1899:91-97.
14. Gauld R, Gould D. The Hong Kong Health Sector: Development and Change. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press; 2002.
15. Marland H, ed. The Art of Midwifery: Early Modern Midwives in Europe. Routledge Press; 1993.
16. Scholten CM. ‘On the importance of the obstetric art’: changing customs of childbirth in America, 1760-1825. William Mary Q. 1977;34(3): 426-445. doi:10.2307/1923561
17. Roush RE. The development of midwifery: male and female, yesterday and today. J Nurse Midwifery. 1979;24(3):27-37. doi:10.1016/0091-2182(79)90078-8
18. Gélis J. History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe. Northeastern University Press; 1991.
19. Minkowski WL. Women healers of the Middle Ages: selected aspects of their history. Am J Public Health. 1992;82(2):288-295. doi:10.2105/ajph.82.2.288
20. Fleming VE. Autonomous or automatons? An exploration through history of the concept of autonomy in midwifery in Scotland and New Zealand. Nurs Ethics. 1998;5(1):43-51.
doi:10.1177/096973309800500106
21. McClive C. The hidden truths of the belly: the uncertainties of pregnancy in early modern Europe. (Society for the Social History of Medicine Student Prize Essay 1999, runner-up.). Soc Hist Med. 2002;15(2):209-227. doi:10.1093/shm/15.2.209
22. Thomas SS. Early modern midwifery: splitting the profession, connecting the history. J Soc Hist. 2009;43(1):115-138. doi:10.1353/jsh.0.0215
23. Laqueur TW. Making Sex: Body and Gender from Greeks to Freud. Harvard University Press; 1990.
24. Park K. Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection. Zone Books; 2010.
25. Drife J. The start of life: A history of obstetrics. Postgrad Med J. 2002;78(919):311-315. doi:10.1136/pmj.78.919.311
26. Bogdan JC. Childbirth in America. In: Apple RD, ed. Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook. Garland Publishing; 1990: 108-112.
27. Waddington K. An Introduction to the Social History of Medicine: Europe Since 1500 Li SR, Trans. Rive Gauche Publishing (original work published 2011); 2014.
28. Leavitt JW. ‘Science’ enters the birthing room: obstetrics in America since the eighteenth century. J Am Hist. 1983;70(2):281-304. doi:10.2307/1900205
29. Ehrenreich B, English D. Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers. The Feminist Press; 2010.
30. Bynum WF. Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press; 1994.
31. Porter R, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press; 1996.
32. Chiang CS. From midwives to male midwives: a review of three modern European works on midwifery and gynecological medicine. Res Women Mod Chin Hist. 1999;7:223-241.
33. Graham H. Eternal Eve. William Heinemann; 1950.
34. Findley P. Priests of Lucina: the Story of Obstetrics. Little, Brown and Company; 1939.
35. Cutter IS, Viets HR. A Short History of Midwifery. W B Saunders; 1964.
36. Donnison J. Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women’s Rights. Schocken Books; 1977.
37. Oakley A. Wisewoman and medicine man: changes in the management of childbirth. In: Mitchell J, Oakley A, eds. The Rights and Wrongs of Women. Penguin Books; 1976:17-58.
38. Dye NS. History of childbirth in America. Signs J Women Cult Soc. 1980;6(1):97-108.
doi:10.1086/493779
39. Magner LN. A History of Medicine. Marcel Dekker Inc; 1992.
40. Lee JD. Gender, medicine, and medieval Chinese history. In: Research Group of the History of Health and Healing (Ed.), New perspectives on Chinese history. Medical History. Linking Publishing; 2015:195-244.
41. Yates RDS. Medicine for women in early China: A preliminary survey. In: Leung AKC, ed. Medicine for Women in Imperial China. Brill; 2006:19-73. doi:10.1163/9789047409922_004
42. Ahern EM. The power and pollution of Chinese women. In: Wolf AP, Witke R, Martin E, eds. Women in Chinese Society. Stanford University Press; 1978:269-290. doi:10.1515/9781503620803-010
43. Leung AKC. Female medical practitioners in premodern China. In: Lee JD, Leung AKC, eds. Women and Society. Encyclopedia Publishing House; 2005:355-374.
44. Liu CT. From San Gu Liu Po to “caring scholar.” Int J Nurs Stud. 1991;28(4):315-324. doi:10.1016/0020-7489(91)90058-b
45. Yi JL. Three Aunts and Six Gossiping Women: an Exploration of Ming Dynasty Women and Society. Daw Shiang Publishing House; 2006.
46. Ma DZ. A History of the Development of Obstetrics and Gynecology in China. Shanxi Science Education Press; 1991.
47. Scheid V. Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: Plurality and Synthesis. Duke University Press; 2002. doi:10.2307/j.ctv125jgmn
48. The Chinese Repository; 1836, 1844.
49. Lockhart W. A treatise on midwifery: A new edition published in the fifth year of Taou Kwong (1825). Dublin J Med Sci. 1842;20(60):333-369.
50. Lockhart W 1861. The medical missionary in China: A narrative of twenty years experience. London: Hurst and Blackett.
51. Li CB. The translation and works of modern Protestant medical missionaries in China. J of Chinese Culture. 2005;1:117–121.
52. Chan MS, Law YM, Kwong WH. Revisiting “collaborative translating” in late Qing, China: the draft manuscripts of Xiyi luelun and Fuying xinshuo. J Chin Stud. 2013;56:243-293.
53. Churchill F, Huston RM, Dickson SH. On the theory and practice of midwifery. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. 1843.
54. Ramsbotham FH 1842. The principles and practices of obstetric medicine and surgery. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
55. Reviews: Chinese works. Med Times Gaz. May 28, 1859:555.
56. Council for World Mission Archives. Letter to Dr. Tidman. Incoming Letters; 1858, April 15, Box no. 1-14, 2-1858, microfiche no. 37.
57. Li SJ. Western medical practitioners in late Qing, China. In: Research Group of the History of Health and Healing (Ed.), New perspectives on Chinese history. Medical History. Linking Publishing; 2015:527-572.
58. Shi S [Qing]. Yiyuan (X. H. Wang, Annotated). Science and Technology Publishing House; 1983.
59. Li SJ. Empire, colonization, and Western medicine. In: Liu SY, Wang WJ, eds. A History of Healing in East Asia: Colonialism, Gender, and Modernity. Linking Publishing; 2017:101-123.
60. Davin A. Imperialism and motherhood. Hist Workshop. 1978;5:9-65. doi:10.1093/hwj/5.1.9
61. George J. Moving with Chinese Opinion: Hong Kong’s Maternity Service, 1881-1941 [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Sydney; 1992.
62. Yip KC, Leung YS, Wong MKT. Health Policy and Disease in Colonial and Post-colonial Hong Kong, 1841-2003. Routledge; 2016. doi:10.4324/9781315672373
63. The Hong Kong Government. Gazette. (1854:1877, 1878, 1882, 1883, 1886, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1901).
64. Tsang CL. Out of the Dark: Women’s Medicine and Women’s Diseases in Colonial Hong Kong [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Hong Kong; 2011.
65. Hong Kong Administrative Reports; 1880.
66. Nightingale F. Notes on Nursing: What It Is, and What It Is Not. Harrison & Sons; 1859.
67. Supplement to the Hong Kong. Government Gazette. 1888;1907:1908.
68. Kang JHD. Missionaries, Women, and Health Care: History of Nursing in Colonial Hong Kong (1887-1942) [Doctoral dissertation]. The Chinese University of Hong Kong; 2013.
69. Stratton D. History of nursing in government hospitals. HK Nurs J. 1973;14:34-37.
70. Hong Kong Sessional Papers. (1896, 1898, 1899:1901-1904).
71. Kang JHD. Bubonic plague, Western medicine, and women: female Chinese patients and colonial medicine in Hong Kong (1841-1900). Res Women Mod Chin Hist. 2015;26:67-132.
72. Platt JJ, Jones ME, Platt AK. The Whitewash Brigade: the Hong Kong Plague 1894. Dix Noonan Webb; 1998.
73. Hong Kong Blue Book; 1909, 1910.
74. Ho, 1991:144.
75. Vaughan M. Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness. Stanford University Press; 1991.
76. Arnold D. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India. University of California Press; 1993.
77. Samanta A. Physicians, forceps and childbirth: technological intervention in reproductive health in colonial Bengal. In: Bala P, ed. Medicine and Colonialism: Historical Perspectives in India and South Africa. Routledge; 2015:111-125.
78. Adas M. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Cornell University Press; 1989.
79. Paterson EH. A Hospital for Hong Kong: the Century History of the Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital. Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital; 1987.
80. Wong MK. The stories of urban Christian women in nineteenth century South China: with special reference to missionary-related sources. In: Ho CWC, ed. Overt and Covert Treasures: Essays on the Sources for Chinese Women’s History. Chinese University Press; 2012:543-570.
81. Kwan SS, Yung YY. Hong Kong’s Opening and the Kwan Family. Wide Angle Press Limited; 1997.
82. Steven GB, Markwick WF 1896. The life, letters, and journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker: Missionary, Physician and Diplomatist, the Father of Medical Missions and Founder of the Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton. Scholarly Resources.
83. University of London SOAS Archive. Council for World Mission Archives, London Missionary Society, South China, Box 2, 3, 15, 16, 20.
84. University of London SOAS Archive. Council for World Mission Archives, London Missionary Society, South China, South China Incoming Correspondence, Box 15.
85. Yang XY. Infant mortality and infant health services in modern Hong Kong (1903-1941). In: Li SJ, ed. Empire and Modern Medicine. Linking Publishing; 2008:147-188.
86. Report on the Blue Book; 1908.
2. Furth C. Concepts of pregnancy, childbirth, and infancy in Ch’ing dynasty China. J Asian Stud. 1987;46(1):7-35. doi:10.2307/2056664
3. Furth C. A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China’s Medical History. University of California Press; 1999:960-1665.
4. Bray F. Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. University of California Press; 1997. doi:10.1525/9780520919006
5. Leung AKC. Women practicing medicine in premodern China. In: Zurndorfer HT, ed. Chinese Women in the Imperial past: New Perspectives. Brill Academic Publishers; 1999:101-134.
6. Wu Y-L. Reproducing Women: Medicine, Metaphor, and Childbirth in Late Imperial China. University of California Press; 2010. doi:10.1525/9780520947610
7. Yip KC. Health and National Reconstruction in Nationalist China: the Development of Modern Health Service, 1928-1937. Association for Asian Studies; 1995.
8. Zhou CY. Female Bodies and the Nation: Strong Nations, Strong Races, and Women’s Health in Modern China (1895-1949). National Chengchi University Department of History; 2010.
9. Johnson TP. Childbirth in Republican China: Delivering Modernity. Lexington Books; 2011.
10. Tucker SW. Opportunities for women: the development of professional women’s medicine at Canton, China, 1879-1901. Womens Stud Int Forum. 1990;13(4):357-368.
doi:10.1016/0277-5395(90)90032-S
11. Shemo C. The Chinese Medical Ministries of Kang Cheng and Shi Meiyu, 1872-1937: On a Cross-Cultural Frontier of Gender, Race, and Nation. Lehigh University Press; 2011.
12. Wang HY. Refusing male physicians: the gender and body politics of missionary medicine in China, 1870s-1920s. Bull Inst Mod Hist Acad Sin. 2008;59:29-66.
13. Brown M. The training of native women as physicians. In: Records of Second Shantung Missionary Conference at Wei-Hien. The Presbyterian Mission Press; 1899:91-97.
14. Gauld R, Gould D. The Hong Kong Health Sector: Development and Change. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press; 2002.
15. Marland H, ed. The Art of Midwifery: Early Modern Midwives in Europe. Routledge Press; 1993.
16. Scholten CM. ‘On the importance of the obstetric art’: changing customs of childbirth in America, 1760-1825. William Mary Q. 1977;34(3): 426-445. doi:10.2307/1923561
17. Roush RE. The development of midwifery: male and female, yesterday and today. J Nurse Midwifery. 1979;24(3):27-37. doi:10.1016/0091-2182(79)90078-8
18. Gélis J. History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe. Northeastern University Press; 1991.
19. Minkowski WL. Women healers of the Middle Ages: selected aspects of their history. Am J Public Health. 1992;82(2):288-295. doi:10.2105/ajph.82.2.288
20. Fleming VE. Autonomous or automatons? An exploration through history of the concept of autonomy in midwifery in Scotland and New Zealand. Nurs Ethics. 1998;5(1):43-51.
doi:10.1177/096973309800500106
21. McClive C. The hidden truths of the belly: the uncertainties of pregnancy in early modern Europe. (Society for the Social History of Medicine Student Prize Essay 1999, runner-up.). Soc Hist Med. 2002;15(2):209-227. doi:10.1093/shm/15.2.209
22. Thomas SS. Early modern midwifery: splitting the profession, connecting the history. J Soc Hist. 2009;43(1):115-138. doi:10.1353/jsh.0.0215
23. Laqueur TW. Making Sex: Body and Gender from Greeks to Freud. Harvard University Press; 1990.
24. Park K. Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection. Zone Books; 2010.
25. Drife J. The start of life: A history of obstetrics. Postgrad Med J. 2002;78(919):311-315. doi:10.1136/pmj.78.919.311
26. Bogdan JC. Childbirth in America. In: Apple RD, ed. Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook. Garland Publishing; 1990: 108-112.
27. Waddington K. An Introduction to the Social History of Medicine: Europe Since 1500 Li SR, Trans. Rive Gauche Publishing (original work published 2011); 2014.
28. Leavitt JW. ‘Science’ enters the birthing room: obstetrics in America since the eighteenth century. J Am Hist. 1983;70(2):281-304. doi:10.2307/1900205
29. Ehrenreich B, English D. Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers. The Feminist Press; 2010.
30. Bynum WF. Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press; 1994.
31. Porter R, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press; 1996.
32. Chiang CS. From midwives to male midwives: a review of three modern European works on midwifery and gynecological medicine. Res Women Mod Chin Hist. 1999;7:223-241.
33. Graham H. Eternal Eve. William Heinemann; 1950.
34. Findley P. Priests of Lucina: the Story of Obstetrics. Little, Brown and Company; 1939.
35. Cutter IS, Viets HR. A Short History of Midwifery. W B Saunders; 1964.
36. Donnison J. Midwives and Medical Men: A History of Interprofessional Rivalries and Women’s Rights. Schocken Books; 1977.
37. Oakley A. Wisewoman and medicine man: changes in the management of childbirth. In: Mitchell J, Oakley A, eds. The Rights and Wrongs of Women. Penguin Books; 1976:17-58.
38. Dye NS. History of childbirth in America. Signs J Women Cult Soc. 1980;6(1):97-108.
doi:10.1086/493779
39. Magner LN. A History of Medicine. Marcel Dekker Inc; 1992.
40. Lee JD. Gender, medicine, and medieval Chinese history. In: Research Group of the History of Health and Healing (Ed.), New perspectives on Chinese history. Medical History. Linking Publishing; 2015:195-244.
41. Yates RDS. Medicine for women in early China: A preliminary survey. In: Leung AKC, ed. Medicine for Women in Imperial China. Brill; 2006:19-73. doi:10.1163/9789047409922_004
42. Ahern EM. The power and pollution of Chinese women. In: Wolf AP, Witke R, Martin E, eds. Women in Chinese Society. Stanford University Press; 1978:269-290. doi:10.1515/9781503620803-010
43. Leung AKC. Female medical practitioners in premodern China. In: Lee JD, Leung AKC, eds. Women and Society. Encyclopedia Publishing House; 2005:355-374.
44. Liu CT. From San Gu Liu Po to “caring scholar.” Int J Nurs Stud. 1991;28(4):315-324. doi:10.1016/0020-7489(91)90058-b
45. Yi JL. Three Aunts and Six Gossiping Women: an Exploration of Ming Dynasty Women and Society. Daw Shiang Publishing House; 2006.
46. Ma DZ. A History of the Development of Obstetrics and Gynecology in China. Shanxi Science Education Press; 1991.
47. Scheid V. Chinese Medicine in Contemporary China: Plurality and Synthesis. Duke University Press; 2002. doi:10.2307/j.ctv125jgmn
48. The Chinese Repository; 1836, 1844.
49. Lockhart W. A treatise on midwifery: A new edition published in the fifth year of Taou Kwong (1825). Dublin J Med Sci. 1842;20(60):333-369.
50. Lockhart W 1861. The medical missionary in China: A narrative of twenty years experience. London: Hurst and Blackett.
51. Li CB. The translation and works of modern Protestant medical missionaries in China. J of Chinese Culture. 2005;1:117–121.
52. Chan MS, Law YM, Kwong WH. Revisiting “collaborative translating” in late Qing, China: the draft manuscripts of Xiyi luelun and Fuying xinshuo. J Chin Stud. 2013;56:243-293.
53. Churchill F, Huston RM, Dickson SH. On the theory and practice of midwifery. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard. 1843.
54. Ramsbotham FH 1842. The principles and practices of obstetric medicine and surgery. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
55. Reviews: Chinese works. Med Times Gaz. May 28, 1859:555.
56. Council for World Mission Archives. Letter to Dr. Tidman. Incoming Letters; 1858, April 15, Box no. 1-14, 2-1858, microfiche no. 37.
57. Li SJ. Western medical practitioners in late Qing, China. In: Research Group of the History of Health and Healing (Ed.), New perspectives on Chinese history. Medical History. Linking Publishing; 2015:527-572.
58. Shi S [Qing]. Yiyuan (X. H. Wang, Annotated). Science and Technology Publishing House; 1983.
59. Li SJ. Empire, colonization, and Western medicine. In: Liu SY, Wang WJ, eds. A History of Healing in East Asia: Colonialism, Gender, and Modernity. Linking Publishing; 2017:101-123.
60. Davin A. Imperialism and motherhood. Hist Workshop. 1978;5:9-65. doi:10.1093/hwj/5.1.9
61. George J. Moving with Chinese Opinion: Hong Kong’s Maternity Service, 1881-1941 [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Sydney; 1992.
62. Yip KC, Leung YS, Wong MKT. Health Policy and Disease in Colonial and Post-colonial Hong Kong, 1841-2003. Routledge; 2016. doi:10.4324/9781315672373
63. The Hong Kong Government. Gazette. (1854:1877, 1878, 1882, 1883, 1886, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1901).
64. Tsang CL. Out of the Dark: Women’s Medicine and Women’s Diseases in Colonial Hong Kong [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Hong Kong; 2011.
65. Hong Kong Administrative Reports; 1880.
66. Nightingale F. Notes on Nursing: What It Is, and What It Is Not. Harrison & Sons; 1859.
67. Supplement to the Hong Kong. Government Gazette. 1888;1907:1908.
68. Kang JHD. Missionaries, Women, and Health Care: History of Nursing in Colonial Hong Kong (1887-1942) [Doctoral dissertation]. The Chinese University of Hong Kong; 2013.
69. Stratton D. History of nursing in government hospitals. HK Nurs J. 1973;14:34-37.
70. Hong Kong Sessional Papers. (1896, 1898, 1899:1901-1904).
71. Kang JHD. Bubonic plague, Western medicine, and women: female Chinese patients and colonial medicine in Hong Kong (1841-1900). Res Women Mod Chin Hist. 2015;26:67-132.
72. Platt JJ, Jones ME, Platt AK. The Whitewash Brigade: the Hong Kong Plague 1894. Dix Noonan Webb; 1998.
73. Hong Kong Blue Book; 1909, 1910.
74. Ho, 1991:144.
75. Vaughan M. Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness. Stanford University Press; 1991.
76. Arnold D. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India. University of California Press; 1993.
77. Samanta A. Physicians, forceps and childbirth: technological intervention in reproductive health in colonial Bengal. In: Bala P, ed. Medicine and Colonialism: Historical Perspectives in India and South Africa. Routledge; 2015:111-125.
78. Adas M. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Cornell University Press; 1989.
79. Paterson EH. A Hospital for Hong Kong: the Century History of the Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital. Alice Ho Miu Ling Nethersole Hospital; 1987.
80. Wong MK. The stories of urban Christian women in nineteenth century South China: with special reference to missionary-related sources. In: Ho CWC, ed. Overt and Covert Treasures: Essays on the Sources for Chinese Women’s History. Chinese University Press; 2012:543-570.
81. Kwan SS, Yung YY. Hong Kong’s Opening and the Kwan Family. Wide Angle Press Limited; 1997.
82. Steven GB, Markwick WF 1896. The life, letters, and journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker: Missionary, Physician and Diplomatist, the Father of Medical Missions and Founder of the Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton. Scholarly Resources.
83. University of London SOAS Archive. Council for World Mission Archives, London Missionary Society, South China, Box 2, 3, 15, 16, 20.
84. University of London SOAS Archive. Council for World Mission Archives, London Missionary Society, South China, South China Incoming Correspondence, Box 15.
85. Yang XY. Infant mortality and infant health services in modern Hong Kong (1903-1941). In: Li SJ, ed. Empire and Modern Medicine. Linking Publishing; 2008:147-188.
86. Report on the Blue Book; 1908.