Perceived learning difficulties, school burnout and digital addiction of students in grades 6 to 12
Main Article Content
Abstract
Research on learning difficulties has generally focused on diagnosed learning difficulties and related aspects. The aim of this study is to find out how students in grades 6–12 perceive learning difficulties, and how perceived learning difficulties relate to digital addiction and burnout. This survey was part of a larger electronic survey. This paper used data collected from 8170 students across Estonia enrolled in an inclusive school system in spring 2022. The students were aged between 11 and 20 years. This study used a Perceived Learning Difficulties Scale to collect data, for which the internal consistency of the statements was high. Results showed that learning difficulties were perceived by students in all grades. Nearly a third of the participants reported that learning was difficult for them. A fifth of the students have difficulty understanding the meaning of texts. Perceptions of learning difficulties were similar in the first grades of school level (grades 7 and 10) and in the final grades (grades 9 and 12), as well as in grades 8 and 11. Girls perceived learning difficulties slightly more than boys. A higher perceived learning difficulties composite score was associated with school-related burnout and digital addiction.
Keywords:
Students with learning difficulties, perceived learning difficulties, age and gender differences, digital addiction, school-related burnout.
Article Details
How to Cite
VARIK-MAASIK, Ene; SEEMA, Riin.
Perceived learning difficulties, school burnout and digital addiction of students in grades 6 to 12.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 3, mar. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/6436>. Date accessed: 06 apr. 2025.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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29. Law on Primary and Secondary Schools. Published 2022. Accessed April 8, 2024.
https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13332410
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32. Macintyre C, Deponio P. Identifying and Supporting Children with Specific Learning Difficulties. London & New York: RoutledgeFalmer; 2003.
33. Mathew ST. A review of the Learning Disability Evaluation Scale (LDES). J Sch Psychol. 2001;39(3): 279-284. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(01)00066-8
34. Meltzer L, Katzir TL, Miller L, Reddy R. Academic self-perceptions, effort, and strategy use in students with learning disabilities: Changes over time. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2004;19(2):99-108.
35. Mikk J. Textbook expertise system. Educ. 2000;(3):23-25.
36. Mikk J. Teachers' congress recommends textbook testing in schools. Teach Newspaper. Published April 17, 2003.
37. Ministry of Education and Research. Unpublished sources from the Ministry of Education and Research. 2022.
38. Ministry of Education and Research. Special Educational Needs: Organization of Studies and Support Services. Published 2022. Accessed January 8, 2025. https://www.hm.ee/uldharidus-ja-noored/alus-pohi-ja-keskharidus/toe-vajadusega-opilased-oppekorraldus-ja-tugiteenused#hariduslike-erivajad
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40. Morgan J, Frith U. Causal modelling: A structural approach to developmental psychopathology. In: Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ, eds. Manual of Developmental Psychopathology: Theory and Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 1995:357-390.
41. Morgan E, Klein C. The Dyslexic Adult in a Non-Dyslexic World. London: Whurr Publishers; 2000.
42. Peleg O. Social anxiety among Arab adolescents with and without learning disabilities in various educational frameworks. Br J Guid Couns. 2011;39(2):161-177. doi:10.1080/0306988 5.2010.547053
43. Ramberg J, Watkins A. Exploring inclusive education across Europe: Some insights from the European Agency Statistics on Inclusive Education. FIRE: Forum Int Res Educ. 2020;6(1):85-101. doi:10.32865/fire202061172
44. Rothman HR, Cosden M. The relationship between self-perception of learning disability and achievement. Self-concept and social support. Learn Disabil Q. 1995;18:203-212. doi:10.2307/15 11043
45. Räis ML, Kallaste E, Sandre S-L. Inclusion of students with special educational needs and related measures. Study report. Estonian Centre for Applied Research CentAR. 2016. Accessed March 1, 2024. https://centar.ee/uus/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Pohiraport-final.pdf
46. Sakiz H, Sart ZH, Börkan B, Korkmaz B, Babür N. Quality of life of children with learning disabilities: A comparison of self-reports and proxy reports. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2015;30(3):114-126.
47. Salmela-Aro K, Kiuru N, Pietikäinen M, Jokela J. Does school matter? The role of school context in adolescents’ school-related burnout. Eur Psychol. 2009;13(1):12-23. doi:10.1027/1016-904 0.13.1.12
48. Salmela-Aro K, Upadyaya K, Hakkarainen K, Lonka K, Alho K. The dark side of internet use: Two longitudinal studies of excessive internet use, depressive symptoms, school burnout and engagement among Finnish early and late adolescents. J Youth Adolesc. 2017;46(2):343-357. doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0494-2
49. Schults A, Kivirähk T, Plado K, Häidkind P. Definition of special educational need and inclusive education. In: Krull E, ed. Handbook of Educational Psychology. Tartu: University of Tartu Publishing House; 2018:615-672.
50. Seema R, Heidmets M, Konstabel K, Varik-Maasik E. Development and validation of the Digital Addiction Scale for Teenagers (DAST). Advance Preprint. 2021. doi:10.31124/advance.13 503156.v1
51. Seema R, Varik-Maasik E. Students’ digital addiction and learning difficulties: shortcomings of surveys in inclusion. Front Educ. 2023;8:1191817. doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1191817
52. Silm G, Lepp L, Kivirand T, et al. The effectiveness of inclusive education in general education 2023. University of Tartu, Institute of Educational Research; 2024.
53. Skaalvik EM, Hagtvet KA. Academic achievement and self-concept: An analysis of causal predominance in a developmental perspective. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1990;58(2):292-307. doi:10.1037/0 022-3514.58.2.292
54. Soodla P, Puksand H, Luptova O. Communicative competence. In: Kikas E, Toomela A, eds. Learning and Teaching in the Third Grade. General Competences and Their Development. University of Tartu Publishing House; 2015:147-184.
55. Stepanova M. School-Related Burnout Among Students With Learning Difficulties [master’s thesis]. Tallinn University; 2021.
56. Sukadari JM, Sutarto HA, Junaidi J, Huda M. Exploring specific learning difficulties in primary schools: An empirical research. Test Eng Manag. 2019;81(11-12):4387-4399.
57. Tammets K, Ley T, Eisenschmidt E, et al. Experiences of Special Needs Distance Education and Implications for the Estonian General Education System. Tallinn University; 2021. Accessed January 6, 2025.
https://www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/tlu_raport_distantsope_yldharidus.pdf
58. Tooding LM. Data Analysis and Interpretation in the Social Sciences. University of Tartu; 2007.
59. Valentine JC, DuBois DL, Cooper H. The relation between self-concept and achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educ Psychol. 2004;39(2):11 1-133. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/14940/Valentine.pdf?sequence
60. Varik E. Literacy of young adults learning at adult gymnasiums: literacy or illiteracy? Stud Learn Soc. 2014:10-16.
61. Varik-Maasik E. Literacy of Estonian Youth from Different Social Backgrounds [doctoral thesis]. Tallinn University; 2015.
62. Veni RK, Merlene AM. Self-perception and psychological well-being as determinants of classroom behavior of students with and without learning disability. J Indian Assoc Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2022;18(2):158-166. doi:10.1177/097 31342221122840
63. Zheng C, Erikson AG, Kingston NM, Noonan PM. The relationship among self-determination, self-concept, and academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. J Learn Disabil. 2014;47 (5):462-474. doi:10.1177/0022219412469688
2. Alesi M, Rappo G, Pepi A. Depression, anxiety at school and self-esteem in children with learning disabilities. J Psychol Abnorm Child. 2014; 3(3):1-8. doi:10.4172/2329-9525.1000125
3. Almourad BM, McAlaney J, Skinner T, Pleva M, Ali R. Defining digital addiction: Key features from the literature. Psihologija. 2020;53(3):237-253. doi:10.2298/PSI191029017
4. Barton D. Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written Language. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing; 2007.
5. Ben-Naim S, Laslo-Roth R, Einav M, Biran H, Margalit M. Academic self-efficacy, sense of coherence, hope and tiredness among college students with learning disabilities. Eur J Spec Needs Educ. 2017;32(1):18–34. doi:10.1080/08856257.20 16.1254973
6. Centre for Educational Innovation. Student survey 2022: feedback booklet for schools. Published 2023. Accessed March 1, 2024.
https://www.tlu.ee/sites/default/files/Instituudid/HTI/HIK/kooliuuring/%C3%95pilasuurimus_tagasisideraamat_2022.pdf
7. Chacón-Cuberos R, Martínez-Martínez A, García-Garnica M, Pistón-Rodríguez MD, Expósito-López J. The relationship between emotional regulation and school burnout: Structural equation model according to dedication to tutoring. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(23):1–14. doi:10.3390/ijerph16234703
8. Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K. Research Methods in Education. 6th ed. London & New York: Routledge; 2007.
9. Cortiella C, Horowitz SH. The State of Learning Disabilities: Facts, Trends and Emerging Issues. New York: The National Center for Learning Disabilities; 2014. Accessed November 8, 2024. https://www.ncld.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2014-State-of-LD.pdf
10. Education and Youth Board. Pupil personalisation in delivering learning that matters. Published 2021. Accessed January 10, 2025. https://harno.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2022-01/Individuaalsuse%20arvestamine%20j%C3%B5ukohase%20%C3%B5ppe%20tagamisel%2022.pdf
11. European Agency for Special Needs Education and Inclusive Education. Published 2022. Accessed January 8, 2025. https://www.european-agency.org/
12. Estonian Education Information System. Accessed January 8, 2024. https://www.ehis.ee/
13. Estonian Qualifications Authority. A Forward-Looking View on Labour and Skills Needs: Education and Research. Published 2018. Accessed January 12, 2025. https://oska.kutsekoda.ee/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/OSKA-Hariduse-ja-teaduse-uuringuaruanne-2018.pdf
14. Farell M. Educating Special Children: An Introduction to Provision for Pupils with Disabilities and Disorders. New York & London: Routledge; 2008.
15. Frith U. Resolving the paradoxes of dyslexia. In: Reid G, Wearmouth J, eds. Dyslexia and Literacy: Theory and Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2006:45–68.
16. Gaspar T, Bilimoria H, Albergaria F, Matos MG. Children with special educational needs and subjective well-being: Social and personal influence. Int J Disabil Dev Educ. 2016;63(5):500-513.
17. Ghazvini SD. Relationships between academic self-concept and academic performance in high school students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011; 15:1034–1039. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.0 3.235
18. Habib M. The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia and related disorders: A reappraisal of the temporal hypothesis, twenty years on. Brain Sci. 2021;11(6):708. doi:10.3390/br ainsci11060708
19. Heward WL. Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. London: Pearson; 2014.
20. Häidkind P, Oras K. The concept of inclusive education and the challenges for teachers in kindergartens and first grade. Est J Educ. 2016; 4(2):60-88. doi:10.12697/eha.2016.4.2.04
21. ICD-10: Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Tartu: University of Tartu Publishing House; 1999.
22. Kallaste E. The Effectiveness of Inclusive Education and Related Measures for Students with Special Educational Needs: Statistical Overview of the Prevalence, Inclusion and Use of Support Measures for HEV in Estonia 2010-2014. Tallinn: Estonian Centre for Applied Research Centar; 2016. Accessed November 6, 2024.
https://centar.ee/case-studies/studies/enhancement-of-inclusive-education-for-pupils-with-educational-special-needs/
23. Karakose T, Tülübaş T, Papadakis S. Revealing the intellectual structure and evolution of digital addiction research: An integrated bibliometric and science mapping approach. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(22). doi:10.3390/ijerph192 214883
24. Kirk SA, Gallagher JJ. Education of Exceptional Children. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company; 1989.
25. Kiuru N, Leskinen E, Nurmi J, Salmela-Aro K. Depressive symptoms during adolescence: Do learning difficulties matter? Int J Behav Dev. 2011; 35(4):298–306. doi:10.1177/0165025410396764
26. Kivirand T, Leijen Ä, Lepp L, Malva L. The meaning and effective implementation factors of inclusive education in the Estonian context: The perspective of professionals training or advising teachers. Est J Educ Res. 2020;8(1):48-71. doi:10.12697/eha.2020.8.1.03
27. Kõrgesaar J. Introduction to the Concept of Special Educational Needs. Published 2020. Accessed March 6, 2024. https://dspace.ut.ee/handle/10062/69494
28. Laanemaa K, Piperal L. Coping and Differentiation of Learning for Students with Learning Difficulties in Distance Education. [Master's thesis]. Tallinn University; 2021.
29. Law on Primary and Secondary Schools. Published 2022. Accessed April 8, 2024.
https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13332410
30. Martinson M. Learning Difficulties: Whose Problem? Where to Look for Solutions? Tallinn: Koolibri; 2010.
31. McCulley LV, Katz S, Vaughn S. Reading instruction and students with learning disabilities. Learn Disabil Pract Concerns Stud LD. 2013; 25:19-43. doi:10.1108/S0270-4013(2013)0000025005
32. Macintyre C, Deponio P. Identifying and Supporting Children with Specific Learning Difficulties. London & New York: RoutledgeFalmer; 2003.
33. Mathew ST. A review of the Learning Disability Evaluation Scale (LDES). J Sch Psychol. 2001;39(3): 279-284. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(01)00066-8
34. Meltzer L, Katzir TL, Miller L, Reddy R. Academic self-perceptions, effort, and strategy use in students with learning disabilities: Changes over time. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2004;19(2):99-108.
35. Mikk J. Textbook expertise system. Educ. 2000;(3):23-25.
36. Mikk J. Teachers' congress recommends textbook testing in schools. Teach Newspaper. Published April 17, 2003.
37. Ministry of Education and Research. Unpublished sources from the Ministry of Education and Research. 2022.
38. Ministry of Education and Research. Special Educational Needs: Organization of Studies and Support Services. Published 2022. Accessed January 8, 2025. https://www.hm.ee/uldharidus-ja-noored/alus-pohi-ja-keskharidus/toe-vajadusega-opilased-oppekorraldus-ja-tugiteenused#hariduslike-erivajad
39. Mitchell D. Diversities in Education: Effective Ways to Reach All Learners. Routledge; 2017. doi:10.4324/9781315684208
40. Morgan J, Frith U. Causal modelling: A structural approach to developmental psychopathology. In: Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ, eds. Manual of Developmental Psychopathology: Theory and Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 1995:357-390.
41. Morgan E, Klein C. The Dyslexic Adult in a Non-Dyslexic World. London: Whurr Publishers; 2000.
42. Peleg O. Social anxiety among Arab adolescents with and without learning disabilities in various educational frameworks. Br J Guid Couns. 2011;39(2):161-177. doi:10.1080/0306988 5.2010.547053
43. Ramberg J, Watkins A. Exploring inclusive education across Europe: Some insights from the European Agency Statistics on Inclusive Education. FIRE: Forum Int Res Educ. 2020;6(1):85-101. doi:10.32865/fire202061172
44. Rothman HR, Cosden M. The relationship between self-perception of learning disability and achievement. Self-concept and social support. Learn Disabil Q. 1995;18:203-212. doi:10.2307/15 11043
45. Räis ML, Kallaste E, Sandre S-L. Inclusion of students with special educational needs and related measures. Study report. Estonian Centre for Applied Research CentAR. 2016. Accessed March 1, 2024. https://centar.ee/uus/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Pohiraport-final.pdf
46. Sakiz H, Sart ZH, Börkan B, Korkmaz B, Babür N. Quality of life of children with learning disabilities: A comparison of self-reports and proxy reports. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2015;30(3):114-126.
47. Salmela-Aro K, Kiuru N, Pietikäinen M, Jokela J. Does school matter? The role of school context in adolescents’ school-related burnout. Eur Psychol. 2009;13(1):12-23. doi:10.1027/1016-904 0.13.1.12
48. Salmela-Aro K, Upadyaya K, Hakkarainen K, Lonka K, Alho K. The dark side of internet use: Two longitudinal studies of excessive internet use, depressive symptoms, school burnout and engagement among Finnish early and late adolescents. J Youth Adolesc. 2017;46(2):343-357. doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0494-2
49. Schults A, Kivirähk T, Plado K, Häidkind P. Definition of special educational need and inclusive education. In: Krull E, ed. Handbook of Educational Psychology. Tartu: University of Tartu Publishing House; 2018:615-672.
50. Seema R, Heidmets M, Konstabel K, Varik-Maasik E. Development and validation of the Digital Addiction Scale for Teenagers (DAST). Advance Preprint. 2021. doi:10.31124/advance.13 503156.v1
51. Seema R, Varik-Maasik E. Students’ digital addiction and learning difficulties: shortcomings of surveys in inclusion. Front Educ. 2023;8:1191817. doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1191817
52. Silm G, Lepp L, Kivirand T, et al. The effectiveness of inclusive education in general education 2023. University of Tartu, Institute of Educational Research; 2024.
53. Skaalvik EM, Hagtvet KA. Academic achievement and self-concept: An analysis of causal predominance in a developmental perspective. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1990;58(2):292-307. doi:10.1037/0 022-3514.58.2.292
54. Soodla P, Puksand H, Luptova O. Communicative competence. In: Kikas E, Toomela A, eds. Learning and Teaching in the Third Grade. General Competences and Their Development. University of Tartu Publishing House; 2015:147-184.
55. Stepanova M. School-Related Burnout Among Students With Learning Difficulties [master’s thesis]. Tallinn University; 2021.
56. Sukadari JM, Sutarto HA, Junaidi J, Huda M. Exploring specific learning difficulties in primary schools: An empirical research. Test Eng Manag. 2019;81(11-12):4387-4399.
57. Tammets K, Ley T, Eisenschmidt E, et al. Experiences of Special Needs Distance Education and Implications for the Estonian General Education System. Tallinn University; 2021. Accessed January 6, 2025.
https://www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/tlu_raport_distantsope_yldharidus.pdf
58. Tooding LM. Data Analysis and Interpretation in the Social Sciences. University of Tartu; 2007.
59. Valentine JC, DuBois DL, Cooper H. The relation between self-concept and achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educ Psychol. 2004;39(2):11 1-133. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/14940/Valentine.pdf?sequence
60. Varik E. Literacy of young adults learning at adult gymnasiums: literacy or illiteracy? Stud Learn Soc. 2014:10-16.
61. Varik-Maasik E. Literacy of Estonian Youth from Different Social Backgrounds [doctoral thesis]. Tallinn University; 2015.
62. Veni RK, Merlene AM. Self-perception and psychological well-being as determinants of classroom behavior of students with and without learning disability. J Indian Assoc Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2022;18(2):158-166. doi:10.1177/097 31342221122840
63. Zheng C, Erikson AG, Kingston NM, Noonan PM. The relationship among self-determination, self-concept, and academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. J Learn Disabil. 2014;47 (5):462-474. doi:10.1177/0022219412469688