Abstract
The quest of medicine to restore function to diseased or damaged human organs has journeyed from human-to-human transplantation to animal-to-human xenotransplantation and now to brain-computer interface implantation. Despite the disparate nature of the latter two technologies, similar ethical questions arise. We explore the history and ethics of xenotransplantation, some of the current technologies supporting the procedure, and current policy guidelines pertaining to clinical xenotransplantation. We then examine the emerging field of brain-computer interfaces. We highlight common ethical issues, including the vulnerability of potential subjects, infection risks, ownership considerations, explanation mandates, and the uncertainty of financial underwriting of technology. We discuss the concept of Ulysses contracts as a method of resolving the conflict between the interests of clinical trial sponsors and technology companies and the subjects and recipients of the permanently implanted technology. Finally, we propose considerations for the explicit delineation in clinical trials of permanently implanted technologies including xenotransplantation and brain-computer interface technologies.