Roles of the immunoglobulin’s in food allergy
Main Article Content
Abstract
Food allergy refers to food allergen-induced and immunoglobulin (Ig)-mediated aberrant immune responses, and is a major cause of anaphylaxis across age groups. While IgE is the canonical effector that arms mast cells and basophils and triggers immediate hypersensitivity upon allergen re-encounter. Additionally, emerging evidence indicates that non-IgE subclasses, involving IgG, IgA, IgD and IgM, shape sensitization, clinical reactivity and the acquisition of tolerance in context-dependent ways, and even has diagnostic values on food allergy. In this review, we summarize current understanding of how each Ig subclass contributes to the pathogenesis, diagnosis and immunotherapeutic response evaluation of food allergy. We also highlight translational implications, including anti-IgE therapy, immunotherapy-driven subclass remodeling and the promise of multiplex immunoassays for personalized diagnosis and monitoring. Clarifying the coordinated and even contradictory functions of Ig subclass will refine risk stratification and accelerate precision immunotherapy for food allergy.
Keywords:
food allergy, immunoglobulin subclass, role
Article Details
How to Cite
WANG, Junling et al.
Roles of the immunoglobulin’s in food allergy.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 10, oct. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/6975>. Date accessed: 15 nov. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v13i10.6975.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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2. An H, Lee YH. Testing on the Relationship between Sustainability, Abnormal Earnings and Firm Value based on ESG Performance. Korean Business Education Review. 2024; 39(3): 385-400.
3. Bartha I, Almulhem N, Santos AF. Feast for thought: A comprehensive review of food allergy 2021-2023. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2024; 153(3): 576-594. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2023.11.918
4. Celebioglu E, Akarsu A, Sahiner UM. IgE-mediated food allergy throughout life. Turk J Med Sci. 2021; 51(1): 49-60. doi: 10.3906/sag-2006-95
5. Liu EG, Yin X, Swaminathan A, et al. Antigen-Presenting Cells in Food Tolerance and Allergy. Front Immunol. 2020; 11: 616020. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.616020
6. McDonnell JM, Calvert R, Beavil RL, et al. The structure of the IgE Cepsilon2 domain and its role in stabilizing the complex with its high-affinity receptor FcepsilonRIalpha. Nat Struct Biol. 2001; 8(5): 437-41. doi: 10.1038/87603
7. Wong DSH, Santos AF. The future of food allergy diagnosis. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1456585. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1456585
8. Baker MG, Wong LSY, Konstantinou GN, et al. Food allergy endotypes revisited. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2025; 156(1): 1-16. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2025.04.019
9. Anvari S, Miller J, Yeh CY, et al. IgE-Mediated Food Allergy. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2019; 57(2): 244-260. doi: 10.1007/s12016-018-8710-3
10. Opper C, Bannon M, Devonshire AL. Diagnosis of Immunoglobulin E-Mediated Food Allergy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2025; 45(3): 339-354. doi: 10.1016/j.iac.2025.04.003
11. Oriel RC, Wang J. Diagnosis and Management of Food Allergy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2021; 41(4): 571-585. doi: 10.1016/j.iac.2021.07.012
12. Martelli A, Calvani M, Foiadelli T, et al. Component resolved diagnosis and risk assessment in food allergy. Acta Biomed. 2021; 92(S7): e2021528. doi: 10.23750/abm.v92iS7.12421
13. Wheeler N, Sanda M, Rasool L, et al. Enhancing allergy diagnosis: mass spectrometry as a complementary technique to the basophil activation test. Front Allergy. 2025; 6: 1568670. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2025.1568670
14. Qiu C, Zhong L, Huang C, et al. Cell-bound IgE and plasma IgE as a combined clinical diagnostic indicator for allergic patients. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1): 4700. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-61455-8
15. De Amici M, Ciprandi G. The Age Impact on Serum Total and Allergen-Specific IgE. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2013; 5(3): 170-4. doi: 10.4168/aair.2013.5.3.170
16. Soundararajan S, Kikuchi Y, Joseph K, et al. Functional assessment of pathogenic IgG subclasses in chronic autoimmune urticaria. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 115(4): 815-21. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.12.1120
17. Scott-Taylor TH, J OBH, Strobel S. Correlation of allergen-specific IgG subclass antibodies and T lymphocyte cytokine responses in children with multiple food allergies. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2010; 21(6): 935-44. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038. 2010.01025.x
18. Baloh CH, Lim N, Huffaker M, et al. Peanut-specific IgG subclasses as biomarkers of peanut allergy in LEAP study participants. World Allergy Organ J. 2024; 17(8): 100940. doi: 10.1016/j. waojou.2024.100940
19. Sletten GB, Halvorsen R, Egaas E, et al. Changes in humoral responses to beta-lactoglobulin in tolerant patients suggest a particular role for IgG4 in delayed, non-IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2006; 17(6): 435-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006.00408.x
20. Hochwallner H, Schulmeister U, Swoboda I, et al. Patients suffering from non-IgE-mediated cow's milk protein intolerance cannot be diagnosed based on IgG subclass or IgA responses to milk allergens. Allergy. 2011; 66(9): 1201-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02635.x
21. Suprun M, Getts R, Grishina G, et al. Ovomucoid epitope-specific repertoire of IgE, IgG(4) , IgG(1) , IgA(1) , and IgD antibodies in egg-allergic children. Allergy. 2020; 75(10): 2633-2643. doi: 10.1111/all.14357
22. Daul CB, Morgan JE, Lehrer SB. The natural history of shrimp hypersensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990; 86(1): 88-93. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(05)80127-7
23. Shamji MH, Valenta R, Jardetzky T, et al. The role of allergen-specific IgE, IgG and IgA in allergic disease. Allergy. 2021; 76(12): 3627-3641. doi: 10.1111/all.14908
24. Furiness KN, El Ansari YS, Oettgen HC, et al. Allergen-specific IgA and IgG antibodies as inhibitors of mast cell function in food allergy. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1389669. doi: 10.3389/falgy. 2024.1389669
25. Santos AF, James LK, Bahnson HT, et al. IgG4 inhibits peanut-induced basophil and mast cell activation in peanut-tolerant children sensitized to peanut major allergens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015; 135(5): 1249-56. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2015.01.012
26. Cady CT, Powell MS, Harbeck RJ, et al. IgG antibodies produced during subcutaneous allergen immunotherapy mediate inhibition of basophil activation via a mechanism involving both FcgammaRIIA and FcgammaRIIB. Immunol Lett. 2010; 130(1-2): 57-65. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2009.12.001
27. Zemelka-Wiacek M, Agache I, Akdis CA, et al. Hot topics in allergen immunotherapy, 2023: Current status and future perspective. Allergy. 2024; 79(4): 823-842. doi: 10.1111/all.15945
28. Satitsuksanoa P, van de Veen W, Tan G, et al. Allergen-specific B cell responses in oral immunotherapy-induced desensitization, remission, and natural outgrowth in cow's milk allergy. Allergy. 2025; 80(1): 161-180. doi: 10.1111/all.16220
29. Qin L, Tang LF, Cheng L, et al. The clinical significance of allergen-specific IgG4 in allergic diseases. Front Immunol. 2022; 13: 1032909. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1032909
30. Pietrzak B, Tomela K, Olejnik-Schmidt A, et al. Secretory IgA in Intestinal Mucosal Secretions as an Adaptive Barrier against Microbial Cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21(23). doi: 10.3390/ijms21239254
31. Knol EF, van Neerven RJJ. IgE versus IgG and IgA: Differential roles of allergen-specific antibodies in sensitization, tolerization, and treatment of allergies. Immunol Rev. 2024; 328(1): 314-333. doi: 10.1111/imr.13386
32. Corthesy B. Secretory immunoglobulin A: well beyond immune exclusion at mucosal surfaces. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2009; 31(2): 174-9. doi: 10.1080/08923970802438441
33. Hockenberry A, Slack E, Stadtmueller BM. License to Clump: Secretory IgA Structure-Function Relationships Across Scales. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2023; 77: 645-668. doi: 10.1146/ annurev-micro-032521-041803
34. Shahin RY, Ali FHA, Melek NAN, et al. Study of selective immunoglobulin A deficiency among Egyptian patients with food allergy. Cent Eur J Immunol. 2020; 45(2): 184-188. doi: 10.5114 /ceji.2020.97907
35. Taico Oliva C, Musa I, Kopulos D, et al. The gut microbiome and cross-reactivity of food allergens: current understanding, insights, and future directions. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1503380. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1503380
36. Ashraf R, Shah NP. Immune system stimulation by probiotic microorganisms. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014; 54(7): 938-56. doi: 10.1080/1040 8398.2011.619671
37. Bos A, van Egmond M, Mebius R. The role of retinoic acid in the production of immunoglobulin A. Mucosal Immunol. 2022; 15(4): 562-572. doi: 10.1038/s41385-022-00509-8
38. Yamaki K, Nakashima T, Miyatake K, et al. IgA attenuates anaphylaxis and subsequent immune responses in mice: possible application of IgA to vaccines. Immunol Res. 2014; 58(1): 106-17. doi: 10.1007/s12026-013-8478-8
39. Wright BL, Kulis M, Orgel KA, et al. Component-resolved analysis of IgA, IgE, and IgG4 during egg OIT identifies markers associated with sustained unresponsiveness. Allergy. 2016; 71(11): 1552-1560. doi: 10.1111/all.12895
40. Raskovic S, Matic IZ, Dordic M, et al. Immunoreactivity to food antigens in patients with chronic urticaria. Immunol Invest. 2014; 43(5): 504-16. doi: 10.3109/08820139.2014.892509
41. Somos S, Schneider I, Farkas B. Immunoglobulins in tears and sera in patients with atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2001; 22(2): 81-6. doi: 10.2500/108854101778250571
42. McDonald PJ, Goldblum RM, Van Sickle GJ, et al. Food protein-induced enterocolitis: altered antibody response to ingested antigen. Pediatr Res. 1984; 18(8): 751-5. doi: 10.1203/00006450-198408000-00016
43. Perkkio M. Immunohistochemical study of intestinal biopsies from children with atopic eczema due to food allergy. Allergy. 1980; 35(7): 573-80. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1980.tb01807.x
44. Nguyen TG. The therapeutic implications of activated immune responses via the enigmatic immunoglobulin D. Int Rev Immunol. 2022; 41(2): 107-122. doi: 10.1080/08830185.2020.1861265
45. Itoh N, Yasutomi M, Kawasaki A, et al. Ovomucoid-specific IgD increases in children who naturally outgrow egg allergy in a cross-sectional study. Allergy. 2021; 76(8): 2607-2609. doi: 10. 1111/all.14841
46. Bao J, Qiu Y, Xu X, et al. Towards an optimized model of food allergy in zebrafish. Mol Immunol. 2024; 173: 110-116. doi: 10.1016/j.molimm.2024.07.014
47. Itoh N, Ohshima Y. The dual aspects of IgD in the development of tolerance and the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. Allergol Int. 2023; 72(2): 227-233. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2022.09.004
48. Caubet JC, Bencharitiwong R, Ross A, et al. Humoral and cellular responses to casein in patients with food protein-induced enterocolitis to cow's milk. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017; 139(2): 572-583. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.02.047
49. Adel-Patient K, Lezmi G, Castelli FA, et al. Deep analysis of immune response and metabolic signature in children with food protein induced enterocolitis to cow's milk. Clin Transl Allergy. 2018; 8: 38. doi: 10.1186/s13601-018-0224-9
50. Shiner M, Ballard J, Smith ME. The small-intestinal mucosa in cow's milk allergy. Lancet. 1975; 1(7899): 136-4. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(75)91431-2
51. Ohshiba A, Yata J. Increase of ovalbumin (OVA)-specific B cells in the peripheral blood of egg-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991; 87(3): 729-36. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(91)90396-6
52. Odaka T, Suetake H, Maeda T, et al. Teleost Basophils Have IgM-Dependent and Dual Ig-Independent Degranulation Systems. J Immunol. 2018; 200(8): 2767-2776. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701051
53. Wood RA, Togias A, Sicherer SH, et al. Omalizumab for the Treatment of Multiple Food Allergies. N Engl J Med. 2024; 390(10): 889-899. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2312382
54. Eggel A, Pennington LF, Jardetzky TS. Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies in allergy: Targeting IgE, cytokine, and alarmin pathways. Immunol Rev. 2024; 328(1): 387-411. doi: 10.1111/imr.13380
55. Zuberbier T, Wood RA, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. Omalizumab in IgE-Mediated Food Allergy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2023; 11(4): 1134-1146. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2022.11.036
56. Barshow SM, Kulis MD, Burks AW, et al. Mechanisms of oral immunotherapy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2021; 51(4): 527-535. doi: 10.1111/cea.13824
57. Mendonca CE, Andreae DA. Food Allergy. Prim Care. 2023; 50(2): 205-220. doi: 10.1016/ j.pop.2023.01.002
58. Matricardi PM, van Hage M, Custovic A, et al. Molecular allergy diagnosis enabling personalized medicine. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2025; 156(3): 485-502. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2025.01.014
2. An H, Lee YH. Testing on the Relationship between Sustainability, Abnormal Earnings and Firm Value based on ESG Performance. Korean Business Education Review. 2024; 39(3): 385-400.
3. Bartha I, Almulhem N, Santos AF. Feast for thought: A comprehensive review of food allergy 2021-2023. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2024; 153(3): 576-594. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2023.11.918
4. Celebioglu E, Akarsu A, Sahiner UM. IgE-mediated food allergy throughout life. Turk J Med Sci. 2021; 51(1): 49-60. doi: 10.3906/sag-2006-95
5. Liu EG, Yin X, Swaminathan A, et al. Antigen-Presenting Cells in Food Tolerance and Allergy. Front Immunol. 2020; 11: 616020. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.616020
6. McDonnell JM, Calvert R, Beavil RL, et al. The structure of the IgE Cepsilon2 domain and its role in stabilizing the complex with its high-affinity receptor FcepsilonRIalpha. Nat Struct Biol. 2001; 8(5): 437-41. doi: 10.1038/87603
7. Wong DSH, Santos AF. The future of food allergy diagnosis. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1456585. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1456585
8. Baker MG, Wong LSY, Konstantinou GN, et al. Food allergy endotypes revisited. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2025; 156(1): 1-16. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2025.04.019
9. Anvari S, Miller J, Yeh CY, et al. IgE-Mediated Food Allergy. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2019; 57(2): 244-260. doi: 10.1007/s12016-018-8710-3
10. Opper C, Bannon M, Devonshire AL. Diagnosis of Immunoglobulin E-Mediated Food Allergy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2025; 45(3): 339-354. doi: 10.1016/j.iac.2025.04.003
11. Oriel RC, Wang J. Diagnosis and Management of Food Allergy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2021; 41(4): 571-585. doi: 10.1016/j.iac.2021.07.012
12. Martelli A, Calvani M, Foiadelli T, et al. Component resolved diagnosis and risk assessment in food allergy. Acta Biomed. 2021; 92(S7): e2021528. doi: 10.23750/abm.v92iS7.12421
13. Wheeler N, Sanda M, Rasool L, et al. Enhancing allergy diagnosis: mass spectrometry as a complementary technique to the basophil activation test. Front Allergy. 2025; 6: 1568670. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2025.1568670
14. Qiu C, Zhong L, Huang C, et al. Cell-bound IgE and plasma IgE as a combined clinical diagnostic indicator for allergic patients. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1): 4700. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-61455-8
15. De Amici M, Ciprandi G. The Age Impact on Serum Total and Allergen-Specific IgE. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2013; 5(3): 170-4. doi: 10.4168/aair.2013.5.3.170
16. Soundararajan S, Kikuchi Y, Joseph K, et al. Functional assessment of pathogenic IgG subclasses in chronic autoimmune urticaria. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 115(4): 815-21. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.12.1120
17. Scott-Taylor TH, J OBH, Strobel S. Correlation of allergen-specific IgG subclass antibodies and T lymphocyte cytokine responses in children with multiple food allergies. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2010; 21(6): 935-44. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038. 2010.01025.x
18. Baloh CH, Lim N, Huffaker M, et al. Peanut-specific IgG subclasses as biomarkers of peanut allergy in LEAP study participants. World Allergy Organ J. 2024; 17(8): 100940. doi: 10.1016/j. waojou.2024.100940
19. Sletten GB, Halvorsen R, Egaas E, et al. Changes in humoral responses to beta-lactoglobulin in tolerant patients suggest a particular role for IgG4 in delayed, non-IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2006; 17(6): 435-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006.00408.x
20. Hochwallner H, Schulmeister U, Swoboda I, et al. Patients suffering from non-IgE-mediated cow's milk protein intolerance cannot be diagnosed based on IgG subclass or IgA responses to milk allergens. Allergy. 2011; 66(9): 1201-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02635.x
21. Suprun M, Getts R, Grishina G, et al. Ovomucoid epitope-specific repertoire of IgE, IgG(4) , IgG(1) , IgA(1) , and IgD antibodies in egg-allergic children. Allergy. 2020; 75(10): 2633-2643. doi: 10.1111/all.14357
22. Daul CB, Morgan JE, Lehrer SB. The natural history of shrimp hypersensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990; 86(1): 88-93. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(05)80127-7
23. Shamji MH, Valenta R, Jardetzky T, et al. The role of allergen-specific IgE, IgG and IgA in allergic disease. Allergy. 2021; 76(12): 3627-3641. doi: 10.1111/all.14908
24. Furiness KN, El Ansari YS, Oettgen HC, et al. Allergen-specific IgA and IgG antibodies as inhibitors of mast cell function in food allergy. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1389669. doi: 10.3389/falgy. 2024.1389669
25. Santos AF, James LK, Bahnson HT, et al. IgG4 inhibits peanut-induced basophil and mast cell activation in peanut-tolerant children sensitized to peanut major allergens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015; 135(5): 1249-56. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2015.01.012
26. Cady CT, Powell MS, Harbeck RJ, et al. IgG antibodies produced during subcutaneous allergen immunotherapy mediate inhibition of basophil activation via a mechanism involving both FcgammaRIIA and FcgammaRIIB. Immunol Lett. 2010; 130(1-2): 57-65. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2009.12.001
27. Zemelka-Wiacek M, Agache I, Akdis CA, et al. Hot topics in allergen immunotherapy, 2023: Current status and future perspective. Allergy. 2024; 79(4): 823-842. doi: 10.1111/all.15945
28. Satitsuksanoa P, van de Veen W, Tan G, et al. Allergen-specific B cell responses in oral immunotherapy-induced desensitization, remission, and natural outgrowth in cow's milk allergy. Allergy. 2025; 80(1): 161-180. doi: 10.1111/all.16220
29. Qin L, Tang LF, Cheng L, et al. The clinical significance of allergen-specific IgG4 in allergic diseases. Front Immunol. 2022; 13: 1032909. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1032909
30. Pietrzak B, Tomela K, Olejnik-Schmidt A, et al. Secretory IgA in Intestinal Mucosal Secretions as an Adaptive Barrier against Microbial Cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21(23). doi: 10.3390/ijms21239254
31. Knol EF, van Neerven RJJ. IgE versus IgG and IgA: Differential roles of allergen-specific antibodies in sensitization, tolerization, and treatment of allergies. Immunol Rev. 2024; 328(1): 314-333. doi: 10.1111/imr.13386
32. Corthesy B. Secretory immunoglobulin A: well beyond immune exclusion at mucosal surfaces. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2009; 31(2): 174-9. doi: 10.1080/08923970802438441
33. Hockenberry A, Slack E, Stadtmueller BM. License to Clump: Secretory IgA Structure-Function Relationships Across Scales. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2023; 77: 645-668. doi: 10.1146/ annurev-micro-032521-041803
34. Shahin RY, Ali FHA, Melek NAN, et al. Study of selective immunoglobulin A deficiency among Egyptian patients with food allergy. Cent Eur J Immunol. 2020; 45(2): 184-188. doi: 10.5114 /ceji.2020.97907
35. Taico Oliva C, Musa I, Kopulos D, et al. The gut microbiome and cross-reactivity of food allergens: current understanding, insights, and future directions. Front Allergy. 2024; 5: 1503380. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1503380
36. Ashraf R, Shah NP. Immune system stimulation by probiotic microorganisms. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014; 54(7): 938-56. doi: 10.1080/1040 8398.2011.619671
37. Bos A, van Egmond M, Mebius R. The role of retinoic acid in the production of immunoglobulin A. Mucosal Immunol. 2022; 15(4): 562-572. doi: 10.1038/s41385-022-00509-8
38. Yamaki K, Nakashima T, Miyatake K, et al. IgA attenuates anaphylaxis and subsequent immune responses in mice: possible application of IgA to vaccines. Immunol Res. 2014; 58(1): 106-17. doi: 10.1007/s12026-013-8478-8
39. Wright BL, Kulis M, Orgel KA, et al. Component-resolved analysis of IgA, IgE, and IgG4 during egg OIT identifies markers associated with sustained unresponsiveness. Allergy. 2016; 71(11): 1552-1560. doi: 10.1111/all.12895
40. Raskovic S, Matic IZ, Dordic M, et al. Immunoreactivity to food antigens in patients with chronic urticaria. Immunol Invest. 2014; 43(5): 504-16. doi: 10.3109/08820139.2014.892509
41. Somos S, Schneider I, Farkas B. Immunoglobulins in tears and sera in patients with atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2001; 22(2): 81-6. doi: 10.2500/108854101778250571
42. McDonald PJ, Goldblum RM, Van Sickle GJ, et al. Food protein-induced enterocolitis: altered antibody response to ingested antigen. Pediatr Res. 1984; 18(8): 751-5. doi: 10.1203/00006450-198408000-00016
43. Perkkio M. Immunohistochemical study of intestinal biopsies from children with atopic eczema due to food allergy. Allergy. 1980; 35(7): 573-80. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1980.tb01807.x
44. Nguyen TG. The therapeutic implications of activated immune responses via the enigmatic immunoglobulin D. Int Rev Immunol. 2022; 41(2): 107-122. doi: 10.1080/08830185.2020.1861265
45. Itoh N, Yasutomi M, Kawasaki A, et al. Ovomucoid-specific IgD increases in children who naturally outgrow egg allergy in a cross-sectional study. Allergy. 2021; 76(8): 2607-2609. doi: 10. 1111/all.14841
46. Bao J, Qiu Y, Xu X, et al. Towards an optimized model of food allergy in zebrafish. Mol Immunol. 2024; 173: 110-116. doi: 10.1016/j.molimm.2024.07.014
47. Itoh N, Ohshima Y. The dual aspects of IgD in the development of tolerance and the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. Allergol Int. 2023; 72(2): 227-233. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2022.09.004
48. Caubet JC, Bencharitiwong R, Ross A, et al. Humoral and cellular responses to casein in patients with food protein-induced enterocolitis to cow's milk. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017; 139(2): 572-583. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.02.047
49. Adel-Patient K, Lezmi G, Castelli FA, et al. Deep analysis of immune response and metabolic signature in children with food protein induced enterocolitis to cow's milk. Clin Transl Allergy. 2018; 8: 38. doi: 10.1186/s13601-018-0224-9
50. Shiner M, Ballard J, Smith ME. The small-intestinal mucosa in cow's milk allergy. Lancet. 1975; 1(7899): 136-4. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(75)91431-2
51. Ohshiba A, Yata J. Increase of ovalbumin (OVA)-specific B cells in the peripheral blood of egg-allergic patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991; 87(3): 729-36. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(91)90396-6
52. Odaka T, Suetake H, Maeda T, et al. Teleost Basophils Have IgM-Dependent and Dual Ig-Independent Degranulation Systems. J Immunol. 2018; 200(8): 2767-2776. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701051
53. Wood RA, Togias A, Sicherer SH, et al. Omalizumab for the Treatment of Multiple Food Allergies. N Engl J Med. 2024; 390(10): 889-899. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2312382
54. Eggel A, Pennington LF, Jardetzky TS. Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies in allergy: Targeting IgE, cytokine, and alarmin pathways. Immunol Rev. 2024; 328(1): 387-411. doi: 10.1111/imr.13380
55. Zuberbier T, Wood RA, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. Omalizumab in IgE-Mediated Food Allergy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2023; 11(4): 1134-1146. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2022.11.036
56. Barshow SM, Kulis MD, Burks AW, et al. Mechanisms of oral immunotherapy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2021; 51(4): 527-535. doi: 10.1111/cea.13824
57. Mendonca CE, Andreae DA. Food Allergy. Prim Care. 2023; 50(2): 205-220. doi: 10.1016/ j.pop.2023.01.002
58. Matricardi PM, van Hage M, Custovic A, et al. Molecular allergy diagnosis enabling personalized medicine. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2025; 156(3): 485-502. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2025.01.014