Pediatric Magnetic Resonance Urography: Emerging Technologies and the Future of Quantitative Renal Imaging Benjamin Press 1,2 , Rachael Germany 3 , Mariana Coronado 3 , Andrew
Main Article Content
Abstract
Magnetic resonance urography (MRU) has evolved over the past three decades into a validated tool for evaluating the pediatric urinary tract. Originally developed in the early 1990s, MRU now combines high-resolution anatomic imaging with quantitative functional assessment, offering a radiation-free alternative to traditional modalities. Comparative studies have consistently demonstrated excellent agreement between MRU-derived differential renal function and radionuclide scintigraphy. Beyond functional equivalence, MRU provides superior delineation of complex anomalies such as megaureter and ectopic ureteral insertion, directly informing surgical planning. Recent innovations have enhanced feasibility in younger children, with real-time imaging and compressed sensing reducing scan times by 30–50% and improving motion robustness. Multiparametric protocols integrating diffusion and perfusion sequences, as well as emerging multi-nuclear approaches, extend MRU’s role into parenchymal and physiologic evaluation. Collectively, these advances shift MRU from a problem-solving adjunct to a central modality in pediatric urology, with future directions focused on standardization, multicenter validation, and potential integration of artificial intelligence for quantitative analysis.
Keywords:
Magnetic Resonance Urography, Pediatric Urology, Quantitative Renal Function, Urinary Tract Anomalies, Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging, Artificial Intelligence in Medical Imaging
Article Details
How to Cite
PRESS, Benjamin et al.
Pediatric Magnetic Resonance Urography: Emerging Technologies and the Future of Quantitative Renal Imaging Benjamin Press 1,2 , Rachael Germany 3 , Mariana Coronado 3 , Andrew.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 10, oct. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/6990>. Date accessed: 05 dec. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v13i10.6990.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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3. El-Nahas AR, Abou El-Ghar ME, Refae HF, Gad HM, El-Diasty TA. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction: an all-in-one approach. BJU international. Mar 2007;99(3):641-5. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06673.x
4. Leppert A, Nadalin S, Schirg E, et al. Impact of magnetic resonance urography on preoperative diagnostic workup in children affected by hydronephrosis: should IVU be replaced? Journal of pediatric surgery. Oct 2002;37(10):1441-5. doi:10.1053/jpsu.2002.35408
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6. Grattan-Smith JD, Little SB, Jones RA. MR urography evaluation of obstructive uropathy. Pediatr Radiol. Jan 2008;38 Suppl 1:S49-69. doi:10.1007/s00247-007-0667-y
7. Kirsch AJ, McMann LP, Jones RA, Smith EA, Scherz HC, Grattan-Smith JD. Magnetic resonance urography for evaluating outcomes after pediatric pyeloplasty. The Journal of urology. Oct 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1755-61. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.03.115
8. Chua ME, Ming JM, Farhat WA. Magnetic resonance urography in the pediatric population: a clinical perspective. Pediatric Radiology. 2016/05/01 2016;46(6):791-795. doi:10.1007/s00247-016-3577-z
9. Morin CE, McBee MP, Trout AT, Reddy PP, Dillman JR. Use of MR Urography in Pediatric Patients. Current Urology Reports. 2018/09/11 2018;19(11):93. doi:10.1007/s11934-018-0843-7
10. Nguyen HT, Herndon CD, Cooper C, et al. The Society for Fetal Urology consensus statement on the evaluation and management of antenatal hydronephrosis. Journal of pediatric urology. Jun 2010;6(3):212-31. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2010.02.205
11. Dillman JR, Trout AT, Smith EA. MR urography in children and adolescents: techniques and clinical applications. Abdominal Radiology. 2016/06/01 2016;41(6):1007-1019. doi:10.1007/s00261-016-0669-z
12. Emad-Eldin S, Abdelaziz O, El-Diasty TA. Diagnostic value of combined static-excretory MR Urography in children with hydronephrosis. Journal of advanced research. Mar 2015;6(2):145-53. doi:10.1016/j.jare.2014.01.008
13. Al-Shaqsi Y, Peycelon M, Paye-Jaouen A. Evaluating pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Dynamic MR urography vs renal scintigraphy with 99m-technetium mercaptoacetyltriglycine. World J Radiol. 2024;16(3):49-57.
14. Gołuch M, Pytlewska A, Sarnecki J. Evaluation of differential renal function in children: a comparative study between magnetic resonance urography and dynamic renal scintigraphy. BMC Pediatr. 2024;24:213. doi:10.1186/s12887-024-04694-2
15. Kirsch H, Krüger P, John-Kroegel U. Functional MR urography in children—update 2023. Fortschr Röntgenstr. 2023;195:1097-1105. doi:10.1055/a-2099-5907
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17. Figueroa VH, Chavhan GB, Oudjhane K, Farhat W. Utility of MR urography in children suspected of having ectopic ureter. Pediatr Radiol. Aug 2014;44(8):956-62. doi:10.1007/s00247-014-2905-4
18. Świȩtoń D, Grzywińska M, Czarniak P, et al. The Emerging Role of MR Urography in Imaging Megaureters in Children. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:839128. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.839128
19. Damasio MB, Rinaldi VE, Magni C. Functional MR urography in children—development of a morpho-functional score to differentiate surgical from non-surgical UPJO kidneys. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:882892. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.882892
20. McMann LP, Kirsch AJ, Scherz HC, et al. Magnetic resonance urography in the evaluation of prenatally diagnosed hydronephrosis and renal dysgenesis. The Journal of urology. Oct 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1786-92. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.05.025
21. Gallo-Bernal S, Bedoya MA, Gee MS, Jaimes C. Pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: faster is better. Pediatric Radiology. 2023/06/01 2023;53(7):1270-1284. doi:10.1007/s00247-022-05529-x
22. Hirsch FW, Frahm J, Sorge I, Roth C, Voit D, Gräfe D. Real-time magnetic resonance imaging in pediatric radiology — new approach to movement and moving children. Pediatric Radiology. 2021/05/01 2021;51(5):840-846. doi:10.1007/s00247-020-04828-5
23. Vosshenrich J, Koerzdoerfer G, Fritz J. Modern acceleration in musculoskeletal MRI: applications, implications, and challenges. Skeletal Radiology. 2024/09/01 2024;53(9):1799-1813. doi:10.1007/s00256-024-04634-2
24. Grzywińska M, Świętoń D, Sabisz A, Piskunowicz M. Functional Magnetic Resonance Urography in Children-Tips and Pitfalls. Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland). May 18 2023;13(10)doi:10.3390/diagnostics13101786
25. Karajgikar JA, Bagga B, Krishna S, Schieda N, Taffel MT. Multiparametric MR urography: state of the art. Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc. 2025;45(4):e240151. doi:10.1148/rg.240151
26. De Mul A, Schleef M, Filler G, McIntyre C, Lemoine S. In vivo assessment of pediatric kidney function using multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional magnetic resonance imaging: Challenges, perspectives, and clinical applications. Pediatr Nephrol. 2025;40(8):1539-1548. doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06560-w
27. Adler B. Pediatric radiology: practical imaging evaluation of infants and children (1st edn), by Edward Lee (ed). Pediatric Radiology. 2017;48:449-450.
28. Gourtsoyiannis NC, Aschoff P. Clinical MRI of the abdomen: why, how, when. Springer; 2011.
29. Dickerson EC, Dillman JR, Smith EA, DiPietro MA, Lebowitz RL, Darge K. Pediatric MR Urography: Indications, Techniques, and Approach to Review. Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc. Jul-Aug 2015;35(4):1208-30. doi:10.1148/rg.2015140223
30. Boss A, Martirosian P, Fuchs J, et al. Dynamic MR urography in children with uropathic disease with a combined 2D and 3D acquisition protocol--comparison with MAG3 scintigraphy. The British journal of radiology. Dec 2014;87(1044):20140426. doi:10.1259/bjr.20140426
31. Cerwinka WH, Grattan-Smith JD, Jones RA, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance urography to dimercaptosuccinic acid scan for the identification of renal parenchyma defects in children with vesicoureteral reflux. Journal of pediatric urology. Apr 2014;10(2):344-51. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2013.09.016
32. Vasanawala SS, Kennedy WA, Ganguly A, et al. MR voiding cystography for evaluation of vesicoureteral reflux. AJR American journal of roentgenology. May 2009;192(5):W206-11. doi:10.2214/ajr.08.1251
33. Gupta RK, Kapoor R, Poptani H, Rastogi H, Gujral RB. Cine MR voiding cystourethrogram in adult normal males. Magnetic resonance imaging. 1992;10(6):881-5. doi:10.1016/0730-725x(92)90441-2
34. Riccabona M, Ruppert-Kohlmayr A, Ring E, Maier C, Lusuardi L, Riccabona M. Potential impact of pediatric MR urography on the imaging algorithm in patients with a functional single kidney. AJR American journal of roentgenology. Sep 2004;183(3):795-800. doi:10.2214/ajr.183.3.1830795
35. Perez-Brayfield MR, Kirsch AJ, Jones RA, Grattan-Smith JD. A prospective study comparing ultrasound, nuclear scintigraphy and dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of hydronephrosis. The Journal of urology. Oct 2003;170(4 Pt 1):1330-4. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000086775.66329.00
36. Janssen KM, Cho JY, Stone K, Kirsch AJ, Linam LE. Decreased percent change in renal pelvis diameter on diuretic functional magnetic resonance urography following administration of furosemide may help characterize unilateral uretero-pelvic junction obstruction. Journal of pediatric urology. Dec 2023;19(6):779.e1-779.e5. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2023.08.014
37. Parikh KR, Hammer MR, Kraft KH, Ivančić V, Smith EA, Dillman JR. Pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: can magnetic resonance urography identify crossing vessels? Pediatr Radiol. Nov 2015;45(12):1788-95. doi:10.1007/s00247-015-3412-y
38. Weiss DA, Kadakia S, Kurzweil R, Srinivasan AK, Darge K, Shukla AR. Detection of crossing vessels in pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Clinical patterns and imaging findings. Journal of pediatric urology. Aug 2015;11(4):173.e1-5. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2015.04.017
39. Joshi MP, Shah HS, Parelkar SV, Agrawal AA, Sanghvi B. Role of magnetic resonance urography in diagnosis of duplex renal system: Our initial experience at a tertiary care institute. Indian journal of urology : IJU : journal of the Urological Society of India. Jan 2009;25(1):52-5. doi:10.4103/0970-1591.45537
40. Arlen AM, Kirsch AJ, Cuda SP, et al. Magnetic resonance urography for diagnosis of pediatric ureteral stricture. Journal of pediatric urology. Oct 2014;10(5):792-8. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2014.01.004
41. Garcia-Roig ML, Grattan-Smith JD, Arlen AM, Smith EA, Kirsch AJ. Detailed evaluation of the upper urinary tract in patients with prune belly syndrome using magnetic resonance urography. Journal of pediatric urology. Apr 2016;12(2):122.e1-7. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2015.11.008
42. Kalisvaart J, Bootwala Y, Poonawala H, et al. Comparison of ultrasound and magnetic resonance urography for evaluation of contralateral kidney in patients with multicystic dysplastic kidney disease. The Journal of urology. Sep 2011;186(3):1059-64. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2011.04.105
43. Stone KM, Cho J, Linam LE, Kirsch AJ. Unique Variants of Megacalycosis on Magnetic Resonance Urography. Urology. Dec 2024;194:189-195. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2024.08.003
44. Kim T, Park JC, Gach HM, Chun J, Mutic S. Technical Note: Real-time 3D MRI in the presence of motion for MRI-guided radiotherapy: 3D Dynamic keyhole imaging with super-resolution. Medical Physics. 2019;46(10):4631-4638. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/mp.13748
45. Press B, Cho J, Kirsch A. Magnetic Resonance Urogram in Pediatric Urology: a Comprehensive Review of Applications and Advances. International braz j urol : official journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology. May-Jun 2025;51(3)doi:10.1590/s1677-5538.Ibju.2025.004
2. Borthne A, Pierre-Jerome C, Nordshus T, Reiseter T. MR urography in children: current status and future development. European radiology. 2000;10(3):503-11. doi:10.1007/s003300050085
3. El-Nahas AR, Abou El-Ghar ME, Refae HF, Gad HM, El-Diasty TA. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction: an all-in-one approach. BJU international. Mar 2007;99(3):641-5. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06673.x
4. Leppert A, Nadalin S, Schirg E, et al. Impact of magnetic resonance urography on preoperative diagnostic workup in children affected by hydronephrosis: should IVU be replaced? Journal of pediatric surgery. Oct 2002;37(10):1441-5. doi:10.1053/jpsu.2002.35408
5. Cerwinka WH, Damien Grattan-Smith J, Kirsch AJ. Magnetic resonance urography in pediatric urology. Journal of pediatric urology. Feb 2008;4(1):74-82; quiz 82-3. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2007.08.007
6. Grattan-Smith JD, Little SB, Jones RA. MR urography evaluation of obstructive uropathy. Pediatr Radiol. Jan 2008;38 Suppl 1:S49-69. doi:10.1007/s00247-007-0667-y
7. Kirsch AJ, McMann LP, Jones RA, Smith EA, Scherz HC, Grattan-Smith JD. Magnetic resonance urography for evaluating outcomes after pediatric pyeloplasty. The Journal of urology. Oct 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1755-61. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.03.115
8. Chua ME, Ming JM, Farhat WA. Magnetic resonance urography in the pediatric population: a clinical perspective. Pediatric Radiology. 2016/05/01 2016;46(6):791-795. doi:10.1007/s00247-016-3577-z
9. Morin CE, McBee MP, Trout AT, Reddy PP, Dillman JR. Use of MR Urography in Pediatric Patients. Current Urology Reports. 2018/09/11 2018;19(11):93. doi:10.1007/s11934-018-0843-7
10. Nguyen HT, Herndon CD, Cooper C, et al. The Society for Fetal Urology consensus statement on the evaluation and management of antenatal hydronephrosis. Journal of pediatric urology. Jun 2010;6(3):212-31. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2010.02.205
11. Dillman JR, Trout AT, Smith EA. MR urography in children and adolescents: techniques and clinical applications. Abdominal Radiology. 2016/06/01 2016;41(6):1007-1019. doi:10.1007/s00261-016-0669-z
12. Emad-Eldin S, Abdelaziz O, El-Diasty TA. Diagnostic value of combined static-excretory MR Urography in children with hydronephrosis. Journal of advanced research. Mar 2015;6(2):145-53. doi:10.1016/j.jare.2014.01.008
13. Al-Shaqsi Y, Peycelon M, Paye-Jaouen A. Evaluating pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Dynamic MR urography vs renal scintigraphy with 99m-technetium mercaptoacetyltriglycine. World J Radiol. 2024;16(3):49-57.
14. Gołuch M, Pytlewska A, Sarnecki J. Evaluation of differential renal function in children: a comparative study between magnetic resonance urography and dynamic renal scintigraphy. BMC Pediatr. 2024;24:213. doi:10.1186/s12887-024-04694-2
15. Kirsch H, Krüger P, John-Kroegel U. Functional MR urography in children—update 2023. Fortschr Röntgenstr. 2023;195:1097-1105. doi:10.1055/a-2099-5907
16. Avni FE, Nicaise N, Hall M, et al. The role of MR imaging for the assessment of complicated duplex kidneys in children: preliminary report. Pediatr Radiol. Apr 2001;31(4):215-23. doi:10.1007/s002470100439
17. Figueroa VH, Chavhan GB, Oudjhane K, Farhat W. Utility of MR urography in children suspected of having ectopic ureter. Pediatr Radiol. Aug 2014;44(8):956-62. doi:10.1007/s00247-014-2905-4
18. Świȩtoń D, Grzywińska M, Czarniak P, et al. The Emerging Role of MR Urography in Imaging Megaureters in Children. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:839128. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.839128
19. Damasio MB, Rinaldi VE, Magni C. Functional MR urography in children—development of a morpho-functional score to differentiate surgical from non-surgical UPJO kidneys. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:882892. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.882892
20. McMann LP, Kirsch AJ, Scherz HC, et al. Magnetic resonance urography in the evaluation of prenatally diagnosed hydronephrosis and renal dysgenesis. The Journal of urology. Oct 2006;176(4 Pt 2):1786-92. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.05.025
21. Gallo-Bernal S, Bedoya MA, Gee MS, Jaimes C. Pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: faster is better. Pediatric Radiology. 2023/06/01 2023;53(7):1270-1284. doi:10.1007/s00247-022-05529-x
22. Hirsch FW, Frahm J, Sorge I, Roth C, Voit D, Gräfe D. Real-time magnetic resonance imaging in pediatric radiology — new approach to movement and moving children. Pediatric Radiology. 2021/05/01 2021;51(5):840-846. doi:10.1007/s00247-020-04828-5
23. Vosshenrich J, Koerzdoerfer G, Fritz J. Modern acceleration in musculoskeletal MRI: applications, implications, and challenges. Skeletal Radiology. 2024/09/01 2024;53(9):1799-1813. doi:10.1007/s00256-024-04634-2
24. Grzywińska M, Świętoń D, Sabisz A, Piskunowicz M. Functional Magnetic Resonance Urography in Children-Tips and Pitfalls. Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland). May 18 2023;13(10)doi:10.3390/diagnostics13101786
25. Karajgikar JA, Bagga B, Krishna S, Schieda N, Taffel MT. Multiparametric MR urography: state of the art. Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc. 2025;45(4):e240151. doi:10.1148/rg.240151
26. De Mul A, Schleef M, Filler G, McIntyre C, Lemoine S. In vivo assessment of pediatric kidney function using multi-parametric and multi-nuclear functional magnetic resonance imaging: Challenges, perspectives, and clinical applications. Pediatr Nephrol. 2025;40(8):1539-1548. doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06560-w
27. Adler B. Pediatric radiology: practical imaging evaluation of infants and children (1st edn), by Edward Lee (ed). Pediatric Radiology. 2017;48:449-450.
28. Gourtsoyiannis NC, Aschoff P. Clinical MRI of the abdomen: why, how, when. Springer; 2011.
29. Dickerson EC, Dillman JR, Smith EA, DiPietro MA, Lebowitz RL, Darge K. Pediatric MR Urography: Indications, Techniques, and Approach to Review. Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc. Jul-Aug 2015;35(4):1208-30. doi:10.1148/rg.2015140223
30. Boss A, Martirosian P, Fuchs J, et al. Dynamic MR urography in children with uropathic disease with a combined 2D and 3D acquisition protocol--comparison with MAG3 scintigraphy. The British journal of radiology. Dec 2014;87(1044):20140426. doi:10.1259/bjr.20140426
31. Cerwinka WH, Grattan-Smith JD, Jones RA, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance urography to dimercaptosuccinic acid scan for the identification of renal parenchyma defects in children with vesicoureteral reflux. Journal of pediatric urology. Apr 2014;10(2):344-51. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2013.09.016
32. Vasanawala SS, Kennedy WA, Ganguly A, et al. MR voiding cystography for evaluation of vesicoureteral reflux. AJR American journal of roentgenology. May 2009;192(5):W206-11. doi:10.2214/ajr.08.1251
33. Gupta RK, Kapoor R, Poptani H, Rastogi H, Gujral RB. Cine MR voiding cystourethrogram in adult normal males. Magnetic resonance imaging. 1992;10(6):881-5. doi:10.1016/0730-725x(92)90441-2
34. Riccabona M, Ruppert-Kohlmayr A, Ring E, Maier C, Lusuardi L, Riccabona M. Potential impact of pediatric MR urography on the imaging algorithm in patients with a functional single kidney. AJR American journal of roentgenology. Sep 2004;183(3):795-800. doi:10.2214/ajr.183.3.1830795
35. Perez-Brayfield MR, Kirsch AJ, Jones RA, Grattan-Smith JD. A prospective study comparing ultrasound, nuclear scintigraphy and dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of hydronephrosis. The Journal of urology. Oct 2003;170(4 Pt 1):1330-4. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000086775.66329.00
36. Janssen KM, Cho JY, Stone K, Kirsch AJ, Linam LE. Decreased percent change in renal pelvis diameter on diuretic functional magnetic resonance urography following administration of furosemide may help characterize unilateral uretero-pelvic junction obstruction. Journal of pediatric urology. Dec 2023;19(6):779.e1-779.e5. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2023.08.014
37. Parikh KR, Hammer MR, Kraft KH, Ivančić V, Smith EA, Dillman JR. Pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: can magnetic resonance urography identify crossing vessels? Pediatr Radiol. Nov 2015;45(12):1788-95. doi:10.1007/s00247-015-3412-y
38. Weiss DA, Kadakia S, Kurzweil R, Srinivasan AK, Darge K, Shukla AR. Detection of crossing vessels in pediatric ureteropelvic junction obstruction: Clinical patterns and imaging findings. Journal of pediatric urology. Aug 2015;11(4):173.e1-5. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2015.04.017
39. Joshi MP, Shah HS, Parelkar SV, Agrawal AA, Sanghvi B. Role of magnetic resonance urography in diagnosis of duplex renal system: Our initial experience at a tertiary care institute. Indian journal of urology : IJU : journal of the Urological Society of India. Jan 2009;25(1):52-5. doi:10.4103/0970-1591.45537
40. Arlen AM, Kirsch AJ, Cuda SP, et al. Magnetic resonance urography for diagnosis of pediatric ureteral stricture. Journal of pediatric urology. Oct 2014;10(5):792-8. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2014.01.004
41. Garcia-Roig ML, Grattan-Smith JD, Arlen AM, Smith EA, Kirsch AJ. Detailed evaluation of the upper urinary tract in patients with prune belly syndrome using magnetic resonance urography. Journal of pediatric urology. Apr 2016;12(2):122.e1-7. doi:10.1016/j.jpurol.2015.11.008
42. Kalisvaart J, Bootwala Y, Poonawala H, et al. Comparison of ultrasound and magnetic resonance urography for evaluation of contralateral kidney in patients with multicystic dysplastic kidney disease. The Journal of urology. Sep 2011;186(3):1059-64. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2011.04.105
43. Stone KM, Cho J, Linam LE, Kirsch AJ. Unique Variants of Megacalycosis on Magnetic Resonance Urography. Urology. Dec 2024;194:189-195. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2024.08.003
44. Kim T, Park JC, Gach HM, Chun J, Mutic S. Technical Note: Real-time 3D MRI in the presence of motion for MRI-guided radiotherapy: 3D Dynamic keyhole imaging with super-resolution. Medical Physics. 2019;46(10):4631-4638. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/mp.13748
45. Press B, Cho J, Kirsch A. Magnetic Resonance Urogram in Pediatric Urology: a Comprehensive Review of Applications and Advances. International braz j urol : official journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology. May-Jun 2025;51(3)doi:10.1590/s1677-5538.Ibju.2025.004