Comparing Psychopathy Subgroups Based on Restricted and Unrestricted Offender Samples Comparing psychopathy subgroups based on two samples
Main Article Content
Emily E. Graupman
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9050-7603
Steven A. Miller
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6687-776X
David S. Kosson
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6193-0071
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9050-7603
Steven A. Miller
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6687-776X
David S. Kosson
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6193-0071
Abstract
Despite general agreement that people with psychopathic traits comprise a heterogeneous group, there is little agreement about the nature of psychopathy subtypes. Moreover, methodological differences across prior studies of this heterogeneity limit the generalizability of past findings. We addressed the impact of using different sampling techniques on the subgroups that emerge by conducting two latent profile analyses of psychopathy facet ratings. Analysis One included all eligible inmates who participated in the study; Analysis Two was restricted to a subset of eligible inmates with PCL-R scores of 27 and higher. Analysis One yielded four profiles, comparable to subtypes identified in prior research with representative offender samples. Analysis Two yielded three profiles closely resembling subtypes identified previously among studies using more restricted samples. In both analyses, specific latent class profiles were differentially associated with psychopathological and criminal outcomes. Comparisons revealed important similarities and differences between the subgroups emerging from the two analyses. First, subgroups consistent with accounts of manipulative and explosive psychopathy appear to provide more precise descriptions of the most prominent subgroups of offenders with psychopathic traits in this forensic sample than some labels used in prior studies. In addition, the explosive psychopathy subgroup may be easier to identify at higher levels of psychopathy than in a fully representative sample of offenders.
Keywords:
psychopathy, latent class analysis, criminal behavior, violence, inmates
Article Details
How to Cite
GRAUPMAN, Emily E.; MILLER, Steven A.; KOSSON, David S..
Comparing Psychopathy Subgroups Based on Restricted and Unrestricted Offender Samples.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 10, oct. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/7012>. Date accessed: 06 dec. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v13i10.7012.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed, text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349
2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
4. Arieti S. Psychopathic personality: Some views on its psychopathology and psychodynamics. Compr Psychiatry. 1963;4(5):301–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(63)80056-5
5. Asparouhov T, Muthén B. Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Struct Equ Modeling. 2014;21(3):329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
6. Asparouhov T, Muthén B. Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. Mplus Web Notes. Published February 4, 2021. doi:www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote21.pdf
7. Bakk Z, Vermunt JK. Robustness of stepwise latent class modeling with continuous distal outcomes. Struct Equ Modeling. 2015;23(1):20–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.955104
8. Banfield JD, Raftery AE. Model-based Gaussian and non-Gaussian clustering. Biometrics. 1993;49 (3):803–821. https://doi.org/10.2307/2532201
9. Bauer DL, Whitman LA, Kosson DS. Reliability and construct validity of Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version scores among incarcerated adolescent girls. Crim Justice Behav. 2011;38(10):965–987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811418048
10. Benning SD, Patrick CJ, Blonigen DM, Hicks BM, Iacono WG. Estimating facets of psychopathy from normal personality traits: A step toward community epidemiological investigations. Assessment. 2005;12(1):3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104271223
11. Boduszek D, Debowska A, Willmott D. Latent profile analysis of psychopathic traits among homicide, general violent, property, and white-collar offenders. J Crim Justice. 2017;51:17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.06.001
12. Bolck A, Croon M, Hagenaars J. Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators. Polit Anal. 2004;12(1):3–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mph001
13. Bozdogan H. Model selection and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC): The general theory and its analytical extensions. Psychometrika. 1987;52(3 ):345–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294361
14. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull. 1992;1 12(1):155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
15. Cooke DJ, Michie C. Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model. Psychol Assess. 2001;13(2):171–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.13.2.171
16. Copestake S, Gray NS, Snowden RJ. A comparison of a self-report measure of psychopathy with the psychopathy checklist-revised in a UK sample of offenders. J Forensic Psychiatry Psychol. 2011;22(2):169–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2010.545134
17. Cunha O, Braga T, Gomes HS, Goncalves M, Concalves RA. Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) factor structure in male perpetrators of intimate partner violence. J Forensic Psychol Res Pract. 2020;20(3):241–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/24732850.2020.1717279
18. Derefinko KJ. Psychopathy and low anxiety: Meta-analytic evidence for the absence of inhibition, not affect. J Pers. 2014;83(6):693-709. doi:10.1111/jopy.12124
19. Edens JF, Marcus DK, Lilienfeld SO, Poythress NG. Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006;115(1):131-144. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.131
20. Eisenbarth H, Carrington F, Shane MS, et al. Comparing the relationship between emotional responsiveness and psychopathy across assessment types: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Spectr. 2025;30(1):e32. doi:10.1017/S109285292500015X
21. First MB, Gibbon M, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I). American Psychiatric Press; 1997.
22. Hale LR, Goldstein DS, Abramowitz CS, Calamari JE, Kosson DS. Psychopathy is related to negative affectivity but not to anxiety sensitivity. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42(6):697-710. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00192-X
23. Hare RD. Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised. 2nd ed. Multi-Health Systems; 2003.
24. Hare RD. The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy. In: Felthous AR, Saß H, eds. The Wiley International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2020:63-106. doi:10.1002/97811191593222
25. Hare RD, Neumann CS. Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4:217-246. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452
26. Henderson DK. Psychopathic states. Br J Psychiatry. 1942;88(373):485-490. doi:10.1192/bjp.88.373.485
27. Hervé H. The masks of sanity and psychopathy: A cluster analytical investigation of subtypes of criminal psychopathy [master’s thesis]. University of British Columbia; 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/14885
28. Hervé H. Psychopathic subtypes: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In: Yuille JC, Hervé H, eds. The Psychopath: Theory, Research, and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2007:431-460.
29. Hicks BM, Drislane LE. Variants (“subtypes”) of psychopathy. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2019.
30. Hicks BM, Markon KE, Patrick CJ, Krueger RF, Newman JP. Identifying psychopathy subtypes on the basis of personality structure. Psychol Assess. 2004;16(3):276-288. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.3.276
31. Hofmann MJ, Schneider S, Mokros A. Fearless but anxious? A systematic review on the utility of fear and anxiety levels to classify subtypes of psychopathy. Behav Sci Law. 2021;39(5):512-540. doi:10.1002/bsl.2544
32. Hoppenbrouwers SS, Bulten BH, Brazil IA. Parsing fear: A reassessment of the evidence for fear deficits in psychopathy. Psychol Bull. 2016;142(6):573-600. doi:10.1037/bul0000040
33. Horley J. The emergence and development of psychopathy. Hist Human Sci. 2014;27(5): 91–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695114541864
34. Humphrey JA. A study of the etiology of sociopathic behavior. Dis Nerv Syst. 1974;35(9):432-435.
35. Karpman B. On the need of separating psychopathy into two distinct clinical types: The symptomatic and the idiopathic. J Crim Psychopathol. 1941;3:112-137.
36. Karpman B. Psychopathy in the scheme of human typology. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1946;103:276-288. doi:10.1097/00005053-194603000-00007
37. Karpman B. The myth of the psychopathic personality. Am J Psychiatry. 1948;104:523-534. doi:10.1176/ajp.104.9.523
38. Karpman B. Conscience in the psychopath: Another version. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1948;18(3): 455-491. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1948.tb05109.x
39. Karpman B. Criminal psychodynamics: A platform. Arch Crim Psychodyn. 1955;1(1):3-100.
40. Kosson DS, Lorenz AR, Newman JP. Effects of comorbid psychopathy on criminal offending and emotion processing in male offenders with antisocial personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006;115 (4):798-806. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.798
41. Kosson DS, Steuerwald BL, Forth AE, Kirkhart KJ. A new method for assessing the interpersonal behavior of psychopathic individuals: Preliminary validation studies. Psychol Assess. 1997;9(2):89-101. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.2.89
42. Kristic S, Neumann CS, Roy S, et al. Using latent variable- and person-centered approaches to examine the role of psychopathic traits in sex offenders. Pers Disord. 2017;9(3):207-216. doi:10.1 037/per0000249
43. Kubak FA, Salekin RT. Psychopathy and anxiety in children and adolescents: New insights on developmental pathways to offending. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(4):271-284. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9144-2
44. Levenson MR, Kiehl KA, Fitzpatrick CM. Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;68(1):151-158. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151
45. Lishner DA, Vitacco MJ, Hong PY, et al. Evaluating the relation between psychopathy and affective empathy: Two preliminary studies. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2012;56(8):1161-1181. doi:10.1177/0306624X11421891
46. Lo Y, Mendell NR, Rubin DB. Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika. 2001;88(3):767-778. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
47. Masyn KE. Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In: Little TD, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Quantitative Methods: Statistical Analysis. Oxford University Press; 2013:551-611.
48. McCallum KE, Boccaccini MT, Varela JG, Turner DB. Psychopathy profiles and Personality Assessment Inventory scores in a sex-offender risk assessment field setting. Assessment. 2022;29(7): 1458-1472. doi:10.1177/10731911211015312
49. Mealey L. The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. Behav Brain Sci. 1995;18(3):523-599. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00039595
50. Mokros A, Hare RD, Neumann CS, Habermeyer E. Subtypes and variations of psychopathic disorders. In: Felthous AR, Sab H, eds. The Wiley International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law: Volume I Diagnosis and Treatment. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2021:107-143.
51. Mokros A, Hare RD, Neumann CS, Santtila P, Habermeyer E, Nitschke J. Variants of psychopathy in adult male offenders: A latent profile analysis. J Abnorm Psychol. 2015;124(2):372-386. doi:10.103 7/abn0000042
52. Mokros A, Hollerbach PS, Eher R. Offender subtypes based on psychopathic traits: Results from factor-mixture modeling. Eur J Psychol Assess. 2020;37(1):33-41. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000582
53. Muthén BO. No, except deleting the covariate or the class. I would investigate why and if it makes sense that the covariate [online forum post]. Statmodel. December 16, 2017. http://www.statmodel.com/discussion/messages/13/20479.html?1498169503
54. Nagin DS. Group-Based Modeling of Development. Harvard University Press; 2005. doi:10.4159/9780674041318
55. Neumann CS, Vitacco MJ, Mokros AS. Using both variable-centered and person-centered approaches to understanding psychopathic personality. In: Gacono CB, ed. The Clinical and Forensic Assessment of Psychopathy: A Practitioner’s Guide. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group; 2016:14-31.
56. Olver ME, Sewall LA, Sarty GE, Lewis K, Wong SCP. A cluster analytic examination and external validation of psychopathic offender subtypes in a multisite sample of Canadian federal offenders. J Abnorm Psychol. 2015;124(2):355-371. doi:10.103 7/abn0000038
57. Partridge GE. Current conceptions of psychopathic personality. Am J Psychiatry. 1930;10:53-99. doi: 10.1176/ajp.87.1.53
58. Porter S. Without conscience or without active conscience? The etiology of psychopathy revisited. Aggress Violent Behav. 1996;1(2):179-189. doi:10. 1016/1359-1789(95)00010-0
59. Sass H, Felthous AR. The heterogeneous construct of psychopathy. In: Schramme T, ed. Being Amoral: Psychopathy and Moral Incapacity. MIT Press; 2014:41-68.
60. Schneider K. Psychopathic Personalities. 9th ed. Cassell; 1958. Originally published 1923.
61. Schwarz G. Estimating the dimensions of a model. Ann Stat. 1978;6(2):461-464. doi:10.1214/ aos/1176344136
62. Sellbom M, Lilienfeld SO, Fowler KA, McCrary KL. The self-report assessment of psychopathy: Challenges, pitfalls, and promises. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2018:211-258.
63. Skeem JL, Poythress N, Edens JF, Lilienfeld SO, Cale EM. Psychopathic personality or personalities? Exploring potential variants of psychopathy and their implications for risk assessment. Aggress Violent Behav. 2003;8(5):513-546. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(02)00098-8
64. Skeem J, Johanson P, Andershed H, Kerr M, Louden JE. Two subtypes of psychopathic violent offenders that parallel primary and secondary variants. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116(2):395-409. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.2.395
65. Spielberger CD. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults (STAI-AD) [database record]. APA PsycTests. 1983. doi:10.1037/t06496-000
66. Swogger MT, Kosson DS. Identifying subtypes of criminal psychopaths: A replication and extension. Crim Justice Behav. 2007;34(8):953-970. doi:10.1177/0093854807300758
67. Vaillant GE. Sociopathy as a human process: A viewpoint. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975;32(2):178-183. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760200042003
68. Vassileva J, Kosson DS, Abramowitz C, Conrod P. Psychopathy versus psychopathies in classifying criminal offenders. Leg Criminol Psychol. 2005; 10(1):27-43. doi:10.1348/135532504X15376
69. Vermunt JK, Magidson J. Latent class cluster analysis. In: Hagenaars J, McCutcheon A, eds. Applied Latent Class Analysis. Cambridge University Press; 2002:89-106.
70. Visser BA, Ashton MC, Pozzebon JA. Is low anxiety part of the psychopathic construct? J Pers. 2011;80(3):725-747. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00745.x
71. Waldman ID, Rhee SH, LoParo D, Park Y. Genetic and environmental influences on psychopathy and antisocial behavior. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2018:335-353.
72. Wong SCP, Burt S. The heterogeneity of incarcerated psychopaths: Differences in risk, need, recidivism, and management approaches. In: Hervé H, Yuille JC, eds. The Psychopath: Theory, Research, and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.; 2007:461-484.
73. Yildirim BO, Derksen JJL. Clarifying the heterogeneity in psychopathic samples: Toward a new continuum of primary and secondary psychopathy. Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:9-41. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.001
74. Zolondek S, Lilienfeld SO, Patrick CJ, Fowler KA. The Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy: Construct and instrumental validity in male prisoners. Assessment. 2006;13(4):470-482. doi:10 .1177/1073191106289860
2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed, text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
4. Arieti S. Psychopathic personality: Some views on its psychopathology and psychodynamics. Compr Psychiatry. 1963;4(5):301–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(63)80056-5
5. Asparouhov T, Muthén B. Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Struct Equ Modeling. 2014;21(3):329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
6. Asparouhov T, Muthén B. Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Using the BCH method in Mplus to estimate a distal outcome model and an arbitrary secondary model. Mplus Web Notes. Published February 4, 2021. doi:www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote21.pdf
7. Bakk Z, Vermunt JK. Robustness of stepwise latent class modeling with continuous distal outcomes. Struct Equ Modeling. 2015;23(1):20–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.955104
8. Banfield JD, Raftery AE. Model-based Gaussian and non-Gaussian clustering. Biometrics. 1993;49 (3):803–821. https://doi.org/10.2307/2532201
9. Bauer DL, Whitman LA, Kosson DS. Reliability and construct validity of Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version scores among incarcerated adolescent girls. Crim Justice Behav. 2011;38(10):965–987. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811418048
10. Benning SD, Patrick CJ, Blonigen DM, Hicks BM, Iacono WG. Estimating facets of psychopathy from normal personality traits: A step toward community epidemiological investigations. Assessment. 2005;12(1):3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104271223
11. Boduszek D, Debowska A, Willmott D. Latent profile analysis of psychopathic traits among homicide, general violent, property, and white-collar offenders. J Crim Justice. 2017;51:17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.06.001
12. Bolck A, Croon M, Hagenaars J. Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: One-step versus three-step estimators. Polit Anal. 2004;12(1):3–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mph001
13. Bozdogan H. Model selection and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC): The general theory and its analytical extensions. Psychometrika. 1987;52(3 ):345–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294361
14. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull. 1992;1 12(1):155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
15. Cooke DJ, Michie C. Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model. Psychol Assess. 2001;13(2):171–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.13.2.171
16. Copestake S, Gray NS, Snowden RJ. A comparison of a self-report measure of psychopathy with the psychopathy checklist-revised in a UK sample of offenders. J Forensic Psychiatry Psychol. 2011;22(2):169–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2010.545134
17. Cunha O, Braga T, Gomes HS, Goncalves M, Concalves RA. Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) factor structure in male perpetrators of intimate partner violence. J Forensic Psychol Res Pract. 2020;20(3):241–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/24732850.2020.1717279
18. Derefinko KJ. Psychopathy and low anxiety: Meta-analytic evidence for the absence of inhibition, not affect. J Pers. 2014;83(6):693-709. doi:10.1111/jopy.12124
19. Edens JF, Marcus DK, Lilienfeld SO, Poythress NG. Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006;115(1):131-144. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.131
20. Eisenbarth H, Carrington F, Shane MS, et al. Comparing the relationship between emotional responsiveness and psychopathy across assessment types: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Spectr. 2025;30(1):e32. doi:10.1017/S109285292500015X
21. First MB, Gibbon M, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I). American Psychiatric Press; 1997.
22. Hale LR, Goldstein DS, Abramowitz CS, Calamari JE, Kosson DS. Psychopathy is related to negative affectivity but not to anxiety sensitivity. Behav Res Ther. 2004;42(6):697-710. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00192-X
23. Hare RD. Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised. 2nd ed. Multi-Health Systems; 2003.
24. Hare RD. The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy. In: Felthous AR, Saß H, eds. The Wiley International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2020:63-106. doi:10.1002/97811191593222
25. Hare RD, Neumann CS. Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4:217-246. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452
26. Henderson DK. Psychopathic states. Br J Psychiatry. 1942;88(373):485-490. doi:10.1192/bjp.88.373.485
27. Hervé H. The masks of sanity and psychopathy: A cluster analytical investigation of subtypes of criminal psychopathy [master’s thesis]. University of British Columbia; 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/14885
28. Hervé H. Psychopathic subtypes: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In: Yuille JC, Hervé H, eds. The Psychopath: Theory, Research, and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2007:431-460.
29. Hicks BM, Drislane LE. Variants (“subtypes”) of psychopathy. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2019.
30. Hicks BM, Markon KE, Patrick CJ, Krueger RF, Newman JP. Identifying psychopathy subtypes on the basis of personality structure. Psychol Assess. 2004;16(3):276-288. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.3.276
31. Hofmann MJ, Schneider S, Mokros A. Fearless but anxious? A systematic review on the utility of fear and anxiety levels to classify subtypes of psychopathy. Behav Sci Law. 2021;39(5):512-540. doi:10.1002/bsl.2544
32. Hoppenbrouwers SS, Bulten BH, Brazil IA. Parsing fear: A reassessment of the evidence for fear deficits in psychopathy. Psychol Bull. 2016;142(6):573-600. doi:10.1037/bul0000040
33. Horley J. The emergence and development of psychopathy. Hist Human Sci. 2014;27(5): 91–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695114541864
34. Humphrey JA. A study of the etiology of sociopathic behavior. Dis Nerv Syst. 1974;35(9):432-435.
35. Karpman B. On the need of separating psychopathy into two distinct clinical types: The symptomatic and the idiopathic. J Crim Psychopathol. 1941;3:112-137.
36. Karpman B. Psychopathy in the scheme of human typology. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1946;103:276-288. doi:10.1097/00005053-194603000-00007
37. Karpman B. The myth of the psychopathic personality. Am J Psychiatry. 1948;104:523-534. doi:10.1176/ajp.104.9.523
38. Karpman B. Conscience in the psychopath: Another version. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1948;18(3): 455-491. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1948.tb05109.x
39. Karpman B. Criminal psychodynamics: A platform. Arch Crim Psychodyn. 1955;1(1):3-100.
40. Kosson DS, Lorenz AR, Newman JP. Effects of comorbid psychopathy on criminal offending and emotion processing in male offenders with antisocial personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006;115 (4):798-806. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.798
41. Kosson DS, Steuerwald BL, Forth AE, Kirkhart KJ. A new method for assessing the interpersonal behavior of psychopathic individuals: Preliminary validation studies. Psychol Assess. 1997;9(2):89-101. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.2.89
42. Kristic S, Neumann CS, Roy S, et al. Using latent variable- and person-centered approaches to examine the role of psychopathic traits in sex offenders. Pers Disord. 2017;9(3):207-216. doi:10.1 037/per0000249
43. Kubak FA, Salekin RT. Psychopathy and anxiety in children and adolescents: New insights on developmental pathways to offending. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(4):271-284. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9144-2
44. Levenson MR, Kiehl KA, Fitzpatrick CM. Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;68(1):151-158. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151
45. Lishner DA, Vitacco MJ, Hong PY, et al. Evaluating the relation between psychopathy and affective empathy: Two preliminary studies. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2012;56(8):1161-1181. doi:10.1177/0306624X11421891
46. Lo Y, Mendell NR, Rubin DB. Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika. 2001;88(3):767-778. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
47. Masyn KE. Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In: Little TD, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Quantitative Methods: Statistical Analysis. Oxford University Press; 2013:551-611.
48. McCallum KE, Boccaccini MT, Varela JG, Turner DB. Psychopathy profiles and Personality Assessment Inventory scores in a sex-offender risk assessment field setting. Assessment. 2022;29(7): 1458-1472. doi:10.1177/10731911211015312
49. Mealey L. The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. Behav Brain Sci. 1995;18(3):523-599. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00039595
50. Mokros A, Hare RD, Neumann CS, Habermeyer E. Subtypes and variations of psychopathic disorders. In: Felthous AR, Sab H, eds. The Wiley International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law: Volume I Diagnosis and Treatment. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2021:107-143.
51. Mokros A, Hare RD, Neumann CS, Santtila P, Habermeyer E, Nitschke J. Variants of psychopathy in adult male offenders: A latent profile analysis. J Abnorm Psychol. 2015;124(2):372-386. doi:10.103 7/abn0000042
52. Mokros A, Hollerbach PS, Eher R. Offender subtypes based on psychopathic traits: Results from factor-mixture modeling. Eur J Psychol Assess. 2020;37(1):33-41. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000582
53. Muthén BO. No, except deleting the covariate or the class. I would investigate why and if it makes sense that the covariate [online forum post]. Statmodel. December 16, 2017. http://www.statmodel.com/discussion/messages/13/20479.html?1498169503
54. Nagin DS. Group-Based Modeling of Development. Harvard University Press; 2005. doi:10.4159/9780674041318
55. Neumann CS, Vitacco MJ, Mokros AS. Using both variable-centered and person-centered approaches to understanding psychopathic personality. In: Gacono CB, ed. The Clinical and Forensic Assessment of Psychopathy: A Practitioner’s Guide. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group; 2016:14-31.
56. Olver ME, Sewall LA, Sarty GE, Lewis K, Wong SCP. A cluster analytic examination and external validation of psychopathic offender subtypes in a multisite sample of Canadian federal offenders. J Abnorm Psychol. 2015;124(2):355-371. doi:10.103 7/abn0000038
57. Partridge GE. Current conceptions of psychopathic personality. Am J Psychiatry. 1930;10:53-99. doi: 10.1176/ajp.87.1.53
58. Porter S. Without conscience or without active conscience? The etiology of psychopathy revisited. Aggress Violent Behav. 1996;1(2):179-189. doi:10. 1016/1359-1789(95)00010-0
59. Sass H, Felthous AR. The heterogeneous construct of psychopathy. In: Schramme T, ed. Being Amoral: Psychopathy and Moral Incapacity. MIT Press; 2014:41-68.
60. Schneider K. Psychopathic Personalities. 9th ed. Cassell; 1958. Originally published 1923.
61. Schwarz G. Estimating the dimensions of a model. Ann Stat. 1978;6(2):461-464. doi:10.1214/ aos/1176344136
62. Sellbom M, Lilienfeld SO, Fowler KA, McCrary KL. The self-report assessment of psychopathy: Challenges, pitfalls, and promises. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2018:211-258.
63. Skeem JL, Poythress N, Edens JF, Lilienfeld SO, Cale EM. Psychopathic personality or personalities? Exploring potential variants of psychopathy and their implications for risk assessment. Aggress Violent Behav. 2003;8(5):513-546. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(02)00098-8
64. Skeem J, Johanson P, Andershed H, Kerr M, Louden JE. Two subtypes of psychopathic violent offenders that parallel primary and secondary variants. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116(2):395-409. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.2.395
65. Spielberger CD. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults (STAI-AD) [database record]. APA PsycTests. 1983. doi:10.1037/t06496-000
66. Swogger MT, Kosson DS. Identifying subtypes of criminal psychopaths: A replication and extension. Crim Justice Behav. 2007;34(8):953-970. doi:10.1177/0093854807300758
67. Vaillant GE. Sociopathy as a human process: A viewpoint. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975;32(2):178-183. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760200042003
68. Vassileva J, Kosson DS, Abramowitz C, Conrod P. Psychopathy versus psychopathies in classifying criminal offenders. Leg Criminol Psychol. 2005; 10(1):27-43. doi:10.1348/135532504X15376
69. Vermunt JK, Magidson J. Latent class cluster analysis. In: Hagenaars J, McCutcheon A, eds. Applied Latent Class Analysis. Cambridge University Press; 2002:89-106.
70. Visser BA, Ashton MC, Pozzebon JA. Is low anxiety part of the psychopathic construct? J Pers. 2011;80(3):725-747. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00745.x
71. Waldman ID, Rhee SH, LoParo D, Park Y. Genetic and environmental influences on psychopathy and antisocial behavior. In: Patrick CJ, ed. Handbook of Psychopathy. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2018:335-353.
72. Wong SCP, Burt S. The heterogeneity of incarcerated psychopaths: Differences in risk, need, recidivism, and management approaches. In: Hervé H, Yuille JC, eds. The Psychopath: Theory, Research, and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.; 2007:461-484.
73. Yildirim BO, Derksen JJL. Clarifying the heterogeneity in psychopathic samples: Toward a new continuum of primary and secondary psychopathy. Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:9-41. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.001
74. Zolondek S, Lilienfeld SO, Patrick CJ, Fowler KA. The Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy: Construct and instrumental validity in male prisoners. Assessment. 2006;13(4):470-482. doi:10 .1177/1073191106289860