Towards Inclusive Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Services for Key Populations at Higher Risk of HIV Exposure in Thailand
Main Article Content
Abstract
Thailand is facing major mental health challenges due to a constellation of factors including rapid socio-economic changes and pressures on vulnerable populations. These cause many Thais to experience stress, anxiety, depression, isolation and suicidal ideation. Mental health is a public health priority; yet, mental health and psycho- social support services (MHPSS) are failing to meet some specific basic needs in mental health promotion, prevention and responsive care. MHPSS efficacy is limited by significant gaps in addressing the mental health needs of four overlapping key populations: LGBTQI+, sex workers, migrant workers and drug users. Adolescents and youth from these are a particular concern. Currently, these key populations are effectively excluded from the National Plan for Mental Health (2018-2037). Because they are at higher risk of HIV exposure, the deficit in MHPSS is detrimental to epidemic control and ending AIDS by 2030. To better understand the mental health needs of the four abovementioned key populations, we conducted a rapid situation analysis of mental health issues that they experience. We used an analytical framework to investigate the salient factors shaping their mental health in terms of four social domains. These are as follows: i) the family and home; ii) the school; iii) the workplace; and iv) the community. We also conducted a rapid assessment of MHPSS in relation to access and uptake of services by the four key populations. Data were obtained through qualitative research involving key informant interviews enhanced by a literature review of mental health among key populations in Thailand.
Article Details
How to Cite
VANNAKIT, Ravipa et al.
Towards Inclusive Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Services for Key Populations at Higher Risk of HIV Exposure in Thailand.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 11, nov. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/7102>. Date accessed: 05 dec. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v13i11.7102.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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10. Goffman E. Stigma notes on the management of spoiled identity. London: Penguin Books; 1990. (Penguin psychology).
11. Sherman ADF, Higgins MK, Balthazar MS, Hill M, Klepper M, Schneider JS, et al. Stigma, social and structural vulnerability, and mental health among transgender women: A partial least square path modeling analysis. J of Nursing Scholarship. 2024 Jan;56(1):42–59.
12. Adelson SL, Stroeh OM, Ng YKW. Development and Mental Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender Youth in Pediatric Practice. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2016 Dec;63(6):971–83.
13. Meyer IH, Frost DM. Minority stress and the health of sexual minorities. In: Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation. Oxford University Press; 2013. p. 252–66.
14. Shuper PA, Joharchi N, Bogoch II, Loutfy M, Crouzat F, El-Helou P, et al. Alcohol consumption, substance use, and depression in relation to HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) nonadherence among gay, bisexual, and other men-who-have-sex-with-men. BMC Public Health. 2020 Dec;20(1):1782.
15. Jaichuang S, Ratanasiri A, Kanato M. Substance abuse among migrant workers of Thai-Laos border, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2012 Sep;95(9):1219–24.
16. Kirmayer LJ, Narasiah L, Munoz M, Rashid M, Ryder AG, Guzder J, et al. Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2011 Sep 6;183(12):E959–67.
17. Bhana A, Kreniske P, Pather A, Abas MA, Mellins CA. Interventions to address the mental health of adolescents and young adults living with or affected by HIV: state of the evidence. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021 Jun;24(S2):e25713.
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19. Poteat TC, Keatley J, Wilcher R, Schwenke C. HIV epidemics among transgender populations: the importance of a trans-inclusive response. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2016 Jul;19:21259.
20. Fukunaga R, Pierre P, Williams JK, Briceno-Robaugh R, Kalibala S, Peterson M, et al. Prioritizing Mental Health within HIV and Tuberculosis Services in PEPFAR. Emerg Infect Dis [Internet]. 2024 Apr [cited 2025 Apr 11];30(4). Available from: https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/4/23-1726_article
21. Saingam D. Substance Abuse Policy in Thailand: Current Challenges and Future Strategies. J Drug Alcohol Res. 2018;7:1–10.
22. Vannakit R. Mental Health and Psychological Support Services (MPHSS) for LGBTQI+, sex workers, people who use drugs, and migrant workers in Thailand. Expertise France, Equal Asia Foundation, Bangkok Interdisciplinary Research and Development; 2024.
23. Desai R, Karim S, Freeborn J, Trivedi C, Husain K, Jain S. Contextualizing the Relationship Between Social Isolation and Substance Abuse. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2024 Sep 24;26(5):23m03679.
24. Shuper PA, Joharchi N, Bogoch II, Loutfy M, Crouzat F, El-Helou P, et al. Alcohol consumption, substance use, and depression in relation to HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) nonadherence among gay, bisexual, and other men-who-have-sex-with-men. BMC Public Health. 2020 Dec;20(1):1782.
25. Spencer L, Alderson H, Scott S, Kaner E, Ling J. ‘The Addiction Was Making Things Harder for My Mental Health’: A Qualitative Exploration of the Views of Adults and Adolescents Accessing a Substance Misuse Treatment Service. IJERPH. 2023 May 26;20(11):5967.
26. Ojanen TT. Sexual/gender minorities in Thailand: Identities, challenges, and voluntary-sector counseling. Sexuality Research & Social Policy. 2009 Jun 1;6(2):4–34.
27. Sopitarchasak S, Kihara M, Min Soe K, Ono-Kihara M. Disparities in Mental Well-being between Non-Minority and Sexual Minority Male Youth in Bangkok, Thailand: Quantitative Findings from a Mixed Method Study. JPSS. 2017 Apr 1;25(2):83–98.
28. Hatzenbuehler ML, Lattanner MR, McKetta S, Pachankis JE. Structural stigma and LGBTQ+ health: a narrative review of quantitative studies. The Lancet Public Health. 2024 Feb;9(2):e109–27.
29. Meyer IH. Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence. 2007;
30. Van Griensven F, Kilmarx PH, Jeeyapant S, Manopaiboon C, Korattana S, Jenkins RA, et al. The Prevalence of Bisexual and Homosexual Orientation and Related Health Risks Among Adolescents in Northern Thailand. Arch Sex Behav. 2004 Apr;33(2):137–47.
31. UNDP. Tolerance But Not Inclusion: A national survey on experiences of discrimination and social attitudes towards LGBT people in Thailand. UNDP; 2019.
32. Suriyasarn B. Gender identity and sexual orientation in Thailand. Bangkok: ILO; 2014.
33. Parent MC, DeBlaere C, Moradi B. Approaches to Research on Intersectionality: Perspectives on Gender, LGBT, and Racial/Ethnic Identities. Sex Roles. 2013 Jun;68(11–12):639–45.
34. Boonmongkon P, Ojanen T, Ratchadapunnathikul C, Samoh N, Damri T, Mudjalin C, et al. Bullying targeting secondary school students who are or are perceived to be transgender or same-sex attracted: types, prevalence, impact, motivation and preventive measures in 5 provinces of Thailand; 2014. Mahidol University, Plan International, UNESCO; 2014.
35. Kaltiala-Heino R, Rimpelä M, Rantanen P, Rimpelä A. Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. Journal of Adolescence. 2000 Dec;23(6):661–74.
36. Beattie TS, Smilenova B, Krishnaratne S, Mazzuca A. Mental health problems among female sex workers in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2020 Sep;17(9):e1003297.
37. Martín-Romo L, Sanmartín FJ, Velasco J. Invisible and stigmatized: A systematic review of mental health and risk factors among sex workers. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2023 Sep;148(3):255–64.
38. Somwaeng A, Pramualratana K, Sumalu S. Need assessment for mental health services among sex workers in Bangkok and Pattaya. SWING Foundation; 2024.
39. Kinyanda E, Hoskins S, Nakku J, Nawaz S, Patel V. Prevalence and risk factors of major depressive disorder in HIV/AIDS as seen in semi-urban Entebbe district, Uganda. BMC Psychiatry. 2011 Dec 30;11:205.
40. Waldron EM, Burnett-Zeigler I, Wee V, Ng YW, Koenig LJ, Pederson AB, et al. Mental Health in Women Living With HIV: The Unique and Unmet Needs. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2021;20:2325958220985665.
41. Chibanda D, Benjamin L, Weiss HA, Abas M. Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in people living with HIV/AIDS in low- and middle-income countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014 Sep 1;67 Suppl 1:S54-67.
42. Todd JV, Cole SR, Pence BW, Lesko CR, Bacchetti P, Cohen MH, et al. Effects of Antiretroviral Therapy and Depressive Symptoms on All-Cause Mortality Among HIV-Infected Women. Am J Epidemiol. 2017 May 15;185(10):869–78.
43. Kesornsri S, Sitthimongkol Y, Hegadoren KM. Mental Health Problems among Migrant Workers: Challenges for Nurses in Thailand. 2014;32(3).
44. Aung TNN, Shirayama Y, Moolphate S, Lorga T, Angkurawaranon C, Yuasa M, et al. Prevalence and social determinants of depression: A cross-sectional survey of Myanmar migrant workers in Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Global Public Health. 2024 Dec 31;19(1):2334316.
45. Hasan SI, Yee A, Rinaldi A, Azham AA, Mohd Hairi F, Amer Nordin AS. Prevalence of common mental health issues among migrant workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16(12):e0260221.
46. Desai R, Karim S, Freeborn J, Trivedi C, Husain K, Jain S. Contextualizing the Relationship Between Social Isolation and Substance Abuse. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2024 Sep 24;26(5):23m03679.
47. Spencer L, Alderson H, Scott S, Kaner E, Ling J. ‘The Addiction Was Making Things Harder for My Mental Health’: A Qualitative Exploration of the Views of Adults and Adolescents Accessing a Substance Misuse Treatment Service. IJERPH. 2023 May 26;20(11):5967.
48. Tharp-Taylor S, Haviland A, D’Amico EJ. Victimization from mental and physical bullying and substance use in early adolescence. Addictive Behaviors. 2009 Jun;34(6–7):561–7.
49. Wongtongkam N, Ward PR, Day A, Winefield AH. Exploring Family and Community Involvement to Protect Thai Youths from Alcohol and Illegal Drug Abuse. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2015 Jan 2;34(1):112–21.
50. Whitesell M, Bachand A, Peel J, Brown M. Familial, Social, and Individual Factors Contributing to Risk for Adolescent Substance Use. Journal of Addiction. 2013;2013:1–9.
51. Laoniramai P, Laosee OC, Somrongthong R, Wongchalee S, Sitthi-Amorn C. Factors affecting the experiences of drug use by adolescents in a Bangkok slum. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005 Jul;36(4):1014–9.
52. ILO and UNDP. LGBTI People and Employment: Discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and sex characteristics in China, Philipines, and Thailand. ILO and UNDP; 2018.
53. Ojanen TT, Burford J, Juntrasook A, Kongsup A, Assatarakul T, Chaiyajit N. Intersections of LGBTI Exclusion and Discrimination in Thailand: the Role of Socio-Economic Status. Sex Res Soc Policy. 2019 Dec;16(4):529–42.
54. Sanders T, Cunningham S, Platt L, Grenfell P, Macioti P. Reviewing the Occupational Risks of Sex Workers in Comparison to Other ‘Risky’ Professions. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; University of Leicester; 2017 Jul.
55. Villar LB. Unacceptable Forms of Work in the Thai Sex and Entertainment Industry. ATR. 2019 Apr 2;(12):108–26.
56. Yaimai W, Oopakarn K, Phumvichitr C, Anukulkijkuส C, Pornnoparat N, Yindeepolcharoen N, et al. Prevalence and associated risk factors of substance abuse among adolescents in rural communities, Central Thailand: A cross-sectional study. J Southeast Asian Med Res. 2019 Dec 1;3(2):73–81.
57. Jaichuang S, Ratanasiri A, Kanato M. Substance abuse among migrant workers of Thai-Laos border, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2012 Sep;95(9):1219–24.
58. Kirmayer LJ, Narasiah L, Munoz M, Rashid M, Ryder AG, Guzder J, et al. Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2011 Sep 6;183(12):E959–67.
59. UNICEF, Institute for Population and Social Research, Burnet Institute: Strengthening mental health and psychosocial support systems and services for children and adolescents in East Asia and the Pacific: Thailand Country Report. UNICEF, Bangkok, 2022
2. Harvey SB, Modini M, Joyce S, Milligan-Saville JS, Tan L, Mykletun A, et al. Can work make you mentally ill? A systematic meta-review of work-related risk factors for common mental health problems. Occup Environ Med. 2017 Apr;74(4):301–10.
3. Collins PY, Velloza J, Concepcion T, Oseso L, Chwastiak L, Kemp CG, et al. Intervening for HIV prevention and mental health: a review of global literature. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021 Jun;24(S2):e25710.
4. O’Grady T, Inman N, Younger A, Huang B, Bouton TO, Kim H, et al. The Characteristics and HIV-Related Outcomes of People Living with Co-occurring HIV and Mental Health Conditions in the United States: A Systematic Review of Literature from 2016 to 2021. AIDS Behav. 2024 Jan;28(1):201–24.
5. World Mental Health Report: Transforming Mental Health for All. 1st ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022. 1 p.
6. Ojanen T, Freeman C, Sopitarchasak S, Suparak P. Mental Health and Well-being of Children and Youth with Diverse SOGIESC in Thailand. Save the Children; 2023.
7. Mental Health Atlas 2020. 1st ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. 1 p.
8. Thai National AIDS Program Review 2022. Thai Ministry of Public Health; 2022.
9. Pamoso AHG, Rasmussen ML, Sutarsa IN, Scholz B. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts: Integrating syndemics and intersectionality in tackling the HIV and mental health epidemics among Filipino gay and bisexual men. Montague-Cardoso K, editor. PLOS Ment Health. 2025 Feb 7;2(2):e0000252.
10. Goffman E. Stigma notes on the management of spoiled identity. London: Penguin Books; 1990. (Penguin psychology).
11. Sherman ADF, Higgins MK, Balthazar MS, Hill M, Klepper M, Schneider JS, et al. Stigma, social and structural vulnerability, and mental health among transgender women: A partial least square path modeling analysis. J of Nursing Scholarship. 2024 Jan;56(1):42–59.
12. Adelson SL, Stroeh OM, Ng YKW. Development and Mental Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender Youth in Pediatric Practice. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2016 Dec;63(6):971–83.
13. Meyer IH, Frost DM. Minority stress and the health of sexual minorities. In: Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation. Oxford University Press; 2013. p. 252–66.
14. Shuper PA, Joharchi N, Bogoch II, Loutfy M, Crouzat F, El-Helou P, et al. Alcohol consumption, substance use, and depression in relation to HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) nonadherence among gay, bisexual, and other men-who-have-sex-with-men. BMC Public Health. 2020 Dec;20(1):1782.
15. Jaichuang S, Ratanasiri A, Kanato M. Substance abuse among migrant workers of Thai-Laos border, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2012 Sep;95(9):1219–24.
16. Kirmayer LJ, Narasiah L, Munoz M, Rashid M, Ryder AG, Guzder J, et al. Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2011 Sep 6;183(12):E959–67.
17. Bhana A, Kreniske P, Pather A, Abas MA, Mellins CA. Interventions to address the mental health of adolescents and young adults living with or affected by HIV: state of the evidence. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021 Jun;24(S2):e25713.
18. Newman PA, Prabhu SM, Akkakanjanasupar P, Tepjan S. HIV and mental health among young people in low-resource contexts in Southeast Asia: A qualitative investigation. Global Public Health. 2022 Jul 3;17(7):1200–14.
19. Poteat TC, Keatley J, Wilcher R, Schwenke C. HIV epidemics among transgender populations: the importance of a trans-inclusive response. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 2016 Jul;19:21259.
20. Fukunaga R, Pierre P, Williams JK, Briceno-Robaugh R, Kalibala S, Peterson M, et al. Prioritizing Mental Health within HIV and Tuberculosis Services in PEPFAR. Emerg Infect Dis [Internet]. 2024 Apr [cited 2025 Apr 11];30(4). Available from: https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/4/23-1726_article
21. Saingam D. Substance Abuse Policy in Thailand: Current Challenges and Future Strategies. J Drug Alcohol Res. 2018;7:1–10.
22. Vannakit R. Mental Health and Psychological Support Services (MPHSS) for LGBTQI+, sex workers, people who use drugs, and migrant workers in Thailand. Expertise France, Equal Asia Foundation, Bangkok Interdisciplinary Research and Development; 2024.
23. Desai R, Karim S, Freeborn J, Trivedi C, Husain K, Jain S. Contextualizing the Relationship Between Social Isolation and Substance Abuse. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2024 Sep 24;26(5):23m03679.
24. Shuper PA, Joharchi N, Bogoch II, Loutfy M, Crouzat F, El-Helou P, et al. Alcohol consumption, substance use, and depression in relation to HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) nonadherence among gay, bisexual, and other men-who-have-sex-with-men. BMC Public Health. 2020 Dec;20(1):1782.
25. Spencer L, Alderson H, Scott S, Kaner E, Ling J. ‘The Addiction Was Making Things Harder for My Mental Health’: A Qualitative Exploration of the Views of Adults and Adolescents Accessing a Substance Misuse Treatment Service. IJERPH. 2023 May 26;20(11):5967.
26. Ojanen TT. Sexual/gender minorities in Thailand: Identities, challenges, and voluntary-sector counseling. Sexuality Research & Social Policy. 2009 Jun 1;6(2):4–34.
27. Sopitarchasak S, Kihara M, Min Soe K, Ono-Kihara M. Disparities in Mental Well-being between Non-Minority and Sexual Minority Male Youth in Bangkok, Thailand: Quantitative Findings from a Mixed Method Study. JPSS. 2017 Apr 1;25(2):83–98.
28. Hatzenbuehler ML, Lattanner MR, McKetta S, Pachankis JE. Structural stigma and LGBTQ+ health: a narrative review of quantitative studies. The Lancet Public Health. 2024 Feb;9(2):e109–27.
29. Meyer IH. Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence. 2007;
30. Van Griensven F, Kilmarx PH, Jeeyapant S, Manopaiboon C, Korattana S, Jenkins RA, et al. The Prevalence of Bisexual and Homosexual Orientation and Related Health Risks Among Adolescents in Northern Thailand. Arch Sex Behav. 2004 Apr;33(2):137–47.
31. UNDP. Tolerance But Not Inclusion: A national survey on experiences of discrimination and social attitudes towards LGBT people in Thailand. UNDP; 2019.
32. Suriyasarn B. Gender identity and sexual orientation in Thailand. Bangkok: ILO; 2014.
33. Parent MC, DeBlaere C, Moradi B. Approaches to Research on Intersectionality: Perspectives on Gender, LGBT, and Racial/Ethnic Identities. Sex Roles. 2013 Jun;68(11–12):639–45.
34. Boonmongkon P, Ojanen T, Ratchadapunnathikul C, Samoh N, Damri T, Mudjalin C, et al. Bullying targeting secondary school students who are or are perceived to be transgender or same-sex attracted: types, prevalence, impact, motivation and preventive measures in 5 provinces of Thailand; 2014. Mahidol University, Plan International, UNESCO; 2014.
35. Kaltiala-Heino R, Rimpelä M, Rantanen P, Rimpelä A. Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. Journal of Adolescence. 2000 Dec;23(6):661–74.
36. Beattie TS, Smilenova B, Krishnaratne S, Mazzuca A. Mental health problems among female sex workers in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2020 Sep;17(9):e1003297.
37. Martín-Romo L, Sanmartín FJ, Velasco J. Invisible and stigmatized: A systematic review of mental health and risk factors among sex workers. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2023 Sep;148(3):255–64.
38. Somwaeng A, Pramualratana K, Sumalu S. Need assessment for mental health services among sex workers in Bangkok and Pattaya. SWING Foundation; 2024.
39. Kinyanda E, Hoskins S, Nakku J, Nawaz S, Patel V. Prevalence and risk factors of major depressive disorder in HIV/AIDS as seen in semi-urban Entebbe district, Uganda. BMC Psychiatry. 2011 Dec 30;11:205.
40. Waldron EM, Burnett-Zeigler I, Wee V, Ng YW, Koenig LJ, Pederson AB, et al. Mental Health in Women Living With HIV: The Unique and Unmet Needs. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2021;20:2325958220985665.
41. Chibanda D, Benjamin L, Weiss HA, Abas M. Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in people living with HIV/AIDS in low- and middle-income countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014 Sep 1;67 Suppl 1:S54-67.
42. Todd JV, Cole SR, Pence BW, Lesko CR, Bacchetti P, Cohen MH, et al. Effects of Antiretroviral Therapy and Depressive Symptoms on All-Cause Mortality Among HIV-Infected Women. Am J Epidemiol. 2017 May 15;185(10):869–78.
43. Kesornsri S, Sitthimongkol Y, Hegadoren KM. Mental Health Problems among Migrant Workers: Challenges for Nurses in Thailand. 2014;32(3).
44. Aung TNN, Shirayama Y, Moolphate S, Lorga T, Angkurawaranon C, Yuasa M, et al. Prevalence and social determinants of depression: A cross-sectional survey of Myanmar migrant workers in Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. Global Public Health. 2024 Dec 31;19(1):2334316.
45. Hasan SI, Yee A, Rinaldi A, Azham AA, Mohd Hairi F, Amer Nordin AS. Prevalence of common mental health issues among migrant workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16(12):e0260221.
46. Desai R, Karim S, Freeborn J, Trivedi C, Husain K, Jain S. Contextualizing the Relationship Between Social Isolation and Substance Abuse. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2024 Sep 24;26(5):23m03679.
47. Spencer L, Alderson H, Scott S, Kaner E, Ling J. ‘The Addiction Was Making Things Harder for My Mental Health’: A Qualitative Exploration of the Views of Adults and Adolescents Accessing a Substance Misuse Treatment Service. IJERPH. 2023 May 26;20(11):5967.
48. Tharp-Taylor S, Haviland A, D’Amico EJ. Victimization from mental and physical bullying and substance use in early adolescence. Addictive Behaviors. 2009 Jun;34(6–7):561–7.
49. Wongtongkam N, Ward PR, Day A, Winefield AH. Exploring Family and Community Involvement to Protect Thai Youths from Alcohol and Illegal Drug Abuse. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2015 Jan 2;34(1):112–21.
50. Whitesell M, Bachand A, Peel J, Brown M. Familial, Social, and Individual Factors Contributing to Risk for Adolescent Substance Use. Journal of Addiction. 2013;2013:1–9.
51. Laoniramai P, Laosee OC, Somrongthong R, Wongchalee S, Sitthi-Amorn C. Factors affecting the experiences of drug use by adolescents in a Bangkok slum. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005 Jul;36(4):1014–9.
52. ILO and UNDP. LGBTI People and Employment: Discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and sex characteristics in China, Philipines, and Thailand. ILO and UNDP; 2018.
53. Ojanen TT, Burford J, Juntrasook A, Kongsup A, Assatarakul T, Chaiyajit N. Intersections of LGBTI Exclusion and Discrimination in Thailand: the Role of Socio-Economic Status. Sex Res Soc Policy. 2019 Dec;16(4):529–42.
54. Sanders T, Cunningham S, Platt L, Grenfell P, Macioti P. Reviewing the Occupational Risks of Sex Workers in Comparison to Other ‘Risky’ Professions. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; University of Leicester; 2017 Jul.
55. Villar LB. Unacceptable Forms of Work in the Thai Sex and Entertainment Industry. ATR. 2019 Apr 2;(12):108–26.
56. Yaimai W, Oopakarn K, Phumvichitr C, Anukulkijkuส C, Pornnoparat N, Yindeepolcharoen N, et al. Prevalence and associated risk factors of substance abuse among adolescents in rural communities, Central Thailand: A cross-sectional study. J Southeast Asian Med Res. 2019 Dec 1;3(2):73–81.
57. Jaichuang S, Ratanasiri A, Kanato M. Substance abuse among migrant workers of Thai-Laos border, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2012 Sep;95(9):1219–24.
58. Kirmayer LJ, Narasiah L, Munoz M, Rashid M, Ryder AG, Guzder J, et al. Common mental health problems in immigrants and refugees: general approach in primary care. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2011 Sep 6;183(12):E959–67.
59. UNICEF, Institute for Population and Social Research, Burnet Institute: Strengthening mental health and psychosocial support systems and services for children and adolescents in East Asia and the Pacific: Thailand Country Report. UNICEF, Bangkok, 2022