Walking barefoot: a literature review of sensory, biomechanical aspects and injury risks
Main Article Content
Abstract
Running barefoot and in minimalist footwear as a sports activity has received much more attention than walking during everyday activities, despite humans typically spending more time and covering more distance walking than running. This article investigates common similarities and differences in health, anatomy and sensory aspects from publications that review and compare habitually barefoot with habitually shod walking.
Compared to barefooters, shod walkers have narrower feet with less evenly distributed pressure patterns, and thinner bones in the toes. Barefoot walking offers additional sensory input, which is beneficial for balance and gait stability, and is a good motivation for exercise. It is also linked with improving attention and working memory. Barefoot locomotion has shorter strides, offers lower peak mechanical loads in soft tissue, bones and joints. The hot, moist and cramped environment of footwear is a primary cause of excessive microbiome growth and ingrown toenails, and long-term use correlates with bunions and increased likelihood of developing high-pressure spots and degenerative arthritic conditions.
The majority of affected people do not choose surgical treatment, and accept the loss of quality of life from chronic pain and reduced mobility " with its increased economic and healthcare costs. While 87% of shod walkers develop long-term chronic issues, there is no study that measures the injury probability of habitually barefoot people. At work, only 10-12% of all injuries are on the feet and ankles. Footwear offers mechanical and thermal protection, but it does not reduce the severity of injuries.
Along with the injury probability, the unverified claims of electrical grounding are controversial. Evidence suggests that long-term risks of shod walking may outweigh the short-term risks of barefoot walking, but more data is needed to have a definitive conclusion.
Keywords:
Barefoot walking, Hallux valgus, Somatosensory input, Development, Gait, Balance, Earthing
Article Details
How to Cite
DERZSI, Zoltan.
Walking barefoot: a literature review of sensory, biomechanical aspects and injury risks.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 12, dec. 2025.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/7126>. Date accessed: 02 jan. 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v13i12.7126.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Rome K, Hancock D, Poratt D. Barefoot running and walking: the pros and cons based on current evidence. Published online April 18, 2008. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/1839
2. Franklin S, Grey MJ, Heneghan N, Bowen L, Li FX. Barefoot vs common footwear: A systematic review of the kinematic, kinetic and muscle activity differences during walking. Gait Posture. 2015;42(3):230-239. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.05.019
3. Hollander K, Heidt C, van der Zwaard B, Braumann KM, Zech A. Long-Term Effects of Habitual Barefoot Running and Walking: A Systematic Review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49:752-762. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000001141
4. Trinkaus E, Shang H. Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear: Tianyuan and Sunghir. J Archaeol Sci. 2008;35(7):1928-1933. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.002
5. Trinkaus E. Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear use. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32(10):1515-1526. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.04.006
6. Hoffmann P. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE FEET OF BAREFOOTED AND SHOE-WEARING PEOPLES. Published online 1905:33.
7. Shulman SB. Survey in China and India of feet that have never worn shoes. J Natl Assoc Chirop. 1949;49:26-30.
8. D’AoÛt K, Pataky TC, De Clercq D, Aerts P. The effects of habitual footwear use: foot shape and function in native barefoot walkers†. Footwear Sci. 2009;1(2):81-94. doi:10.1080/19424280903386411
9. Mei Q, Gu Y, Xiang L, et al. Foot shape and plantar pressure relationships in shod and barefoot populations. Biomech Model Mechanobiol. 2020;19(4):1211-1224. doi:10.1007/s10237-019-01255-w
10. Lythgo N, Wilson C, Galea M. Basic gait and symmetry measures for primary school-aged children and young adults whilst walking barefoot and with shoes. Gait Posture. 2009;30(4):502-506. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2009.07.119
11. Morio C, Lake MJ, Gueguen N, Rao G, Baly L. The influence of footwear on foot motion during walking and running. J Biomech. 2009;42(13):2081-2088. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.06.015
12. Wirth B, Hauser F, Mueller R. Back and neck muscle activity in healthy adults during barefoot walking and walking in conventional and flexible shoes. Footwear Sci. 2011;3(3):159-167. doi:10.1080/19424280.2011.633104
13. Keenan GS, Franz JR, Dicharry J, Croce UD, Kerrigan DC. Lower limb joint kinetics in walking: The role of industry recommended footwear. Gait Posture. 2011;33(3):350-355. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.09.019
14. Zhang X, Paquette MR, Zhang S. A comparison of gait biomechanics of flip-flops, sandals, barefoot and shoes. J Foot Ankle Res. 2013;6(1):45. doi:10.1186/1757-1146-6-45
15. Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, Kester RC, Alexander RM. The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature. 1987;325(6100):147-149. doi:10.1038/325147a0
16. Robbins S, Waked E, Gouw GJ, McClaran J. Athletic footwear affects balance in men. Br J Sports Med. 1994;28(2):117-122.
17. Arndt A, Ekenman I, Westblad P, Lundberg A. Effects of fatigue and load variation on metatarsal deformation measured in vivo during barefoot walking. J Biomech. 2002;35(5):621-628. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(01)00241-X
18. Shine LB. Incidence of Hallux Valgus in a Partially Shoe-wearing Community. Br Med J. 1965;1(5451):1648-1650.
19. Rao U, Joseph B. The influence of footwear on the prevalence of flat foot. A survey of 2300 children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1992;74-B(4):525-527. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.74B4.1624509
20. Abdel-Fattah MM, Hassanin MM, Felembane FA, Nassaane MT. Flat foot among Saudi Arabian army recruits: prevalence and risk factors. East Mediterr Health J. 2006;12(1):7.
21. Piqué-Vidal C, Vila J. A geometric analysis of hallux valgus: correlation with clinical assessment of severity. J Foot Ankle Res. 2009;2(1):15. doi:10.1186/1757-1146-2-15
22. Buldt AK, Menz HB. Incorrectly fitted footwear, foot pain and foot disorders: a systematic search and narrative review of the literature. J Foot Ankle Res. 2018;11(1):43. doi:10.1186/s13047-018-0284-z
23. Hollander K, Petersen E, Zech A, Hamacher D. Effects of barefoot vs. shod walking during indoor and outdoor conditions in younger and older adults. Gait Posture. 2022;95:284-291. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.04.024
24. Yu G, Fan Y, Fan Y, et al. The Role of Footwear in the Pathogenesis of Hallux Valgus: A Proof-of-Concept Finite Element Analysis in Recent Humans and Homo naledi. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2020;8. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00648
25. Puszczałowska-Lizis E, Zarzyczna P, Mikuľáková W. Impact of footwear fitting on foot shape in primary schoolgirls. Acta Bioeng Biomech. 2020;Vol. 22(nr 1). doi:10.37190/ABB-01425-2019-02
26. Sachithanandam V, Joseph B. The influence of footwear on the prevalence of flat foot. A survey of 1846 skeletally mature persons. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77-B(2):254-257. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.77B2.7706341
27. Echarri JJ, Forriol F. The development in footprint morphology in 1851 Congolese children from urban and rural areas, and the relationship between this and wearing shoes. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2003;12(2):141.
28. Wolf S, Simon J, Patikas D, Schuster W, Armbrust P, Döderlein L. Foot motion in children shoes—A comparison of barefoot walking with shod walking in conventional and flexible shoes. Gait Posture. 2008;27(1):51-59. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.01.005
29. Hollander K, van der Zwaard BC, de Villiers JE, Braumann KM, Venter R, Zech A. The effects of being habitually barefoot on foot mechanics and motor performance in children and adolescents aged 6–18 years: study protocol for a multicenter cross-sectional study (Barefoot LIFE project). J Foot Ankle Res. 2016;9(1):36. doi:10.1186/s13047-016-0166-1
30. Hollander K, de Villiers JE, Sehner S, et al. Growing-up (habitually) barefoot influences the development of foot and arch morphology in children and adolescents. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):8079. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07868-4
31. Hollander K, de Villiers JE, Venter R, et al. Foot Strike Patterns Differ Between Children and Adolescents Growing up Barefoot vs. Shod. Int J Sports Med. 2018;39(2):97-103. doi:10.1055/s-0043-120344
32. Klein C, Groll-Knapp E, Kundi M, Kinz W. Increased hallux angle in children and its association with insufficient length of footwear: A community based cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2009;10(1):159. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-10-159
33. Kinz W, Groll-Knapp E, Kundi M. Hallux valgus in pre-school-aged children: the effects of too-short shoes on the hallux angle and the effects of going barefoot on podiatric health. Footwear Sci. 2021;13(1):29-42. doi:10.1080/19424280.2020.1853826
34. González-Elena ML, Castro-Méndez A, Coheña-Jiménez M, Córdoba-Fernández A. Relationship of the Use of Short Footwear with the Development of Hallux Valgus in a Sample of Andalusian Schoolchildren. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(21):11244. doi:10.3390/ijerph182111244
35. Agussalim, Mumin KBHA, Ingkaninan K. Barefoot Walking Habits and their Potential Protective Effect Against Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Qualitative Study among the Kajangand Highland Papua Communities: Research Article. Open J Nurs Res. 2025;1(01):08-13.
36. Barnett CH. The normal orientation of the human hallux and the effect of footwear. Published online 1962:7.
37. Nilsonne H. Hallux Rigidus and Its Treatment. Acta Orthop Scand. 1930;1(1-4):295-303. doi:10.3109/17453673008991145
38. Yee G, Lau J. Current Concepts Review: Hallux Rigidus. Foot Ankle Int. 2008;29(6):637-646. doi:10.3113/FAI.2008.0637
39. Ho B, Baumhauer J. Hallux rigidus. Published online January 25, 2017. Accessed May 29, 2025. https://eor.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eor/2/1/2058-5241.2.160031.xml
40. Alzurahi A. Bunion Symptom Disorder: Surgical and Non-Surgical Treatment. Engineering Archive. Preprint posted online April 20, 2021. doi:10.31224/osf.io/pfqvt
41. Gougoulias N, Lampridis V, Sakellariou A. Morton’s interdigital neuroma: instructional review. Published online January 23, 2019. Accessed June 5, 2025. https://eor.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eor/4/1/2058-5241.4.180025.xml
42. Heifetz CJ. Ingrown toe-nail: A clinical study. Am J Surg. 1937;38(2):298-315. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(37)90439-2
43. Sasagawa Y. Internal environment of footwear is a risk factor for tinea pedis. J Dermatol. 2019;46(11):940-946. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.15060
44. Miao T, Wang P, Zhang N, Li Y. Footwear microclimate and its effects on the microbial community of the plantar skin. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):20356. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99865-x
45. Davis IS, Hollander K, Lieberman DE, Ridge ST, Sacco ICN, Wearing SC. Stepping Back to Minimal Footwear: Applications Across the Lifespan. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2021;49(4):228-243. doi:10.1249/JES.0000000000000263
46. Petersen E, Zech A, Hamacher D. Walking barefoot vs. with minimalist footwear – influence on gait in younger and older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2020;20(1):88. doi:10.1186/s12877-020-1486-3
47. Dames KD, Heise GD, Hydock DS, Smith JD. Obese adults walk differently in shoes than while barefoot. Gait Posture. 2019;70:79-83. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2019.02.016
48. Abdelraouf OR, Abdel-aziem AA. Ankle and foot mechanics in individuals with chronic ankle instability during shod walking and barefoot walking: A cross-sectional study. Chin J Traumatol. 2021;24(03):174-179. doi:10.1016/j.cjtee.2021.02.010
49. Broscheid KC, Zech A. Influence of Barefoot, Minimalist, and Standard Footwear Conditions on Gait and Balance in Healthy Older Adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64(2):435-437. doi:10.1111/jgs.13980
50. Curtis R, Willems C, Paoletti P, D’Août K. Daily activity in minimal footwear increases foot strength. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):18648. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98070-0
51. Futrell E, Kaufman R, Chevan J. Long-Term Effects and Impressions of Minimal Footwear in Older Adults. Gerontology. 2024;70(11):1137-1147. doi:10.1159/000540957
52. Shakoor N, Block JA. Walking barefoot decreases loading on the lower extremity joints in knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(9):2923-2927. doi:10.1002/art.22123
53. Muğrabi S, Feyzioğlu Ö. Comparison of short controlled ankle motion boots and barefoot walking on spatiotemporal gait parameters and plantar pressure distribution. PLOS ONE. 2025;20(3):e0319671. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319671
54. Shultz SP, Houltham SD, Kung SM, Hume P, Fink PW. Metabolic Differences Between Shod and Barefoot Walking in Children. Int J Sports Med. 2016;37(5):401-404. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1569349
55. Yu B, Kramer PA. Walking Speed Alters Barefoot Gait Coordination and Variability. J Mot Behav. 2022;54(4):410-421. doi:10.1080/00222895.2021.1990005
56. Reinstein M, Weisman A, Masharawi Y. Barefoot walking is beneficial for individuals with persistent plantar heel pain: A single-blind randomized controlled trial. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2024;67(2):101786. doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2023.101786
57. Kell CA, Von Kriegstein K, Rösler A, Kleinschmidt A, Laufs H. The Sensory Cortical Representation of the Human Penis: Revisiting Somatotopy in the Male Homunculus. J Neurosci. 2005;25(25):5984-5987. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0712-05.2005
58. Linkenauger SA, Wong HY, Geuss M, et al. The perceptual homunculus: The perception of the relative proportions of the human body. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2015;144(1):103-113. doi:10.1037/xge0000028
59. Kennedy PM, Inglis JT. Distribution and behaviour of glabrous cutaneous receptors in the human foot sole. J Physiol. 2002;538(3):995-1002. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2001.013087
60. Strzalkowski NDJ, Peters RM, Inglis JT, Bent LR. Cutaneous afferent innervation of the human foot sole: what can we learn from single-unit recordings? J Neurophysiol. 2018;120(3):1233-1246. doi:10.1152/jn.00848.2017
61. Cudejko T, Gardiner J, Akpan A, D’Août K. Minimal shoes improve stability and mobility in persons with a history of falls. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):21755. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78862-6
62. Biscarini A, Calandra A, Marcucci A, Panichi R, Belotti A. Enhanced Foot Proprioception Through 3-Minute Walking Bouts with Ultra-Minimalist Shoes on Surfaces That Mimic Highly Rugged Natural Terrains. Biomimetics. 2024;9(12):741. doi:10.3390/biomimetics9120741
63. Simoneau G, Ulbrecht J, Derr J, Cavanagh P. Role of somatosensory input in the control of human posture. Gait Posture. 1995;3(3):115-122. doi:10.1016/0966-6362(95)99061-O
64. Eils E, Nolte S, Tewes M, Thorwesten L, Völker K, Rosenbaum D. Modified pressure distribution patterns in walking following reduction of plantar sensation. J Biomech. 2002;35(10):1307-1313. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00168-9
65. Eils E, Behrens S, Mers O, Thorwesten L, Völker K, Rosenbaum D. Reduced plantar sensation causes a cautious walking pattern. Gait Posture. 2004;20(1):54-60. doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(03)00095-X
66. Höhne A, Ali S, Stark C, Brüggemann GP. Reduced plantar cutaneous sensation modifies gait dynamics, lower-limb kinematics and muscle activity during walking. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(11):3829-3838. doi:10.1007/s00421-012-2364-2
67. Suganuma J, Ikeda Y, Chidori K. Effects of Foot Somatosensory Training on Plantar Somatosensory Function. Cureus. Published online December 26, 2024. doi:10.7759/cureus.76399
68. Holowka NB, Wynands B, Drechsel TJ, et al. Foot callus thickness does not trade off protection for tactile sensitivity during walking. Nature. 2019;571(7764):261-264. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1345-6
69. Lord SR, Mbbs GMB. Shoe Characteristics and Balance in Older Women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44(4):429-433. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb06416.x
70. Rozin Kleiner AF, Galli M, Araujo do Carmo A, Barros RML. Effects of flooring on required coefficient of friction: Elderly adult vs. middle-aged adult barefoot gait. Appl Ergon. 2015;50:147-152. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2015.02.010
71. Romer BH, Weimar W, Fox J. Footwear Alters Lower Extremity Coordination Variability. Percept Mot Skills. 2019;126(5):764-778. doi:10.1177/0031512519863183
72. Tanaka T, Shirogane S, Izumi T, Ino S, Ifukube T. The Effect of Brief Moving Vibratory Stimulation on the Feet for Postural Control in a Comparison Study. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr. 2006;24(1):1-23. doi:10.1080/J148v24n01_01
73. Unver B, Bek N. Plantar sensation, plantar pressure, and postural stability alterations and effects of visual status in older adults. Somatosens Mot Res. 2022;39(1):55-61. doi:10.1080/08990220.2021.1994940
74. Cavlak M, Ata E, Algun ZC. Effect of plantar sensory exercises on balance and fall risk in nursing home elderly. The Foot. 2025;62:102156. doi:10.1016/j.foot.2025.102156
75. Franz JR, Shelton AD, Takahashi KZ, Allen JL. Plantar sensation associates with gait instability in older adults. J NeuroEngineering Rehabil. 2025;22(1):11. doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01555-6
76. Alfuth M, Rosenbaum D. Effects of changes in plantar sensory feedback on human gait characteristics: a systematic review. Footwear Sci. 2012;4(1):1-22. doi:10.1080/19424280.2011.653990
77. D’Août K. Walking on your sensitive sole. Nature. 2019;571(7764):176-177.
doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01953-6
78. Brown KM. The haptic pleasures of ground-feel: The role of textured terrain in motivating regular exercise. Health Place. 2017;46:307-314. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.08.012
79. Francis P, Schofield G, Mackay L. Being barefoot. Prevalence at home, in school and during sport: a cross-sectional survey of 714 New Zealand secondary school boys. J Foot Ankle Res. 2018;11(1):42. doi:10.1186/s13047-018-0285-y
80. Kim JS, Lee MM, Kim DS, Shin CS. Effects of Barefoot Walking in Urban Forests on CRP, IFNγ, and Serotonin Levels. Healthcare. 2024;12(23):2372. doi:10.3390/healthcare12232372
81. Kim T, Seo DY, Bae JH, Han J. Barefoot walking improves cognitive ability in adolescents. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol Off J Korean Physiol Soc Korean Soc Pharmacol. 2024;28(4):295-302. doi:10.4196/kjpp.2024.28.4.295
82. Rickard SC, White MP. Barefoot walking, nature connectedness and psychological restoration: the importance of stimulating the sense of touch for feeling closer to the natural world. Landsc Res. 2021;46(7):975-991. doi:10.1080/01426397.2021.1928034
83. Spiller M. Designing for human-nature connectedness: A case study of the Barefoot Path Spalt, Germany. J Outdoor Recreat Tour. 2024;48:100827. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2024.100827
84. Robbins S, Gouw GJ, McClaran J, Waked E. Protective Sensation of the Plantar Aspect of the Foot. Foot Ankle. 1993;14(6):347-352. doi:10.1177/107110079301400608
85. Sorock GS, Lombardi DA, Hauser RB, Eisen EA, Herrick RF, Mittleman MA. Acute Traumatic Occupational Hand Injuries: Type, Location, and Severity. J Occup Environ Med. 2002;44(4):345.
86. Conti SF, Silverman L. Epidemiology of foot and ankle injuries in the workplace. Foot Ankle Clin. 2002;7(2):273-290. doi:10.1016/S1083-7515(02)00028-1
87. Sorock GS, Lombardi DA, Courtney TK, Cotnam JP, Mittleman MA. Epidemiology of occupational acute traumatic hand injuries: a literature review. Saf Sci. 2001;38(3):241-256. doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(01)00004-2
88. 青柳直子, 内山有子, 小林正子, 柴若光昭, 衞藤隆. 小学校におけるはだし教育と安全に関する意識・態度,および健康習慣との関連性. 民族衛生. 1999;65(4):173-181. doi:10.3861/jshhe.65.173
89. Burnfield JM, Few CD, Mohamed OS, Perry J. The influence of walking speed and footwear on plantar pressures in older adults. Clin Biomech. 2004;19(1):78-84. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2003.09.007
90. Zech A. Beinflussbarkeit des Gang- und Laufverhaltens durch Schuhbedingungen. Orthop. 2023;52(8):626-630. doi:10.1007/s00132-023-04407-0
91. Zech A, Venter R, de Villiers JE, Sehner S, Wegscheider K, Hollander K. Motor Skills of Children and Adolescents Are Influenced by Growing up Barefoot or Shod. Front Pediatr. 2018;6. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00115
92. Romkes J, Rudmann C, Brunner R. Changes in gait and EMG when walking with the Masai Barefoot Technique. Clin Biomech. 2006;21(1):75-81. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.08.003
93. Müller S, Baur H, Ewald A, Hirschmüller A, Mayer F. Redistribution of Load under the Child´s Foot While Walking Shod and with Different Insoles Compared to Barefoot.; 2003.
94. Beck ON, Schroeder JN, Sawicki GS. Habitually wearing high heels may improve user walking economy in any footwear. J Appl Physiol. 2024;136(3):567-572. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00016.2024
95. J. Peters GS M Hendriks ,M. Estimation of the Electrical Conductivity of Human Tissue. Electromagnetics. 2001;21(7-8):545-557.
doi:10.1080/027263401752246199
96. Voldman SH. The state of the art of electrostatic discharge protection: physics, technology, circuits, design, simulation, and scaling. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits. 1999;34(9):1272-1282.
doi:10.1109/4.782088
97. Glor M. Electrostatic ignition hazards in the process industry. J Electrost. 2005;63(6):447-453. doi:10.1016/j.elstat.2005.03.001
98. Ghaly M, Teplitz D. The Biologic Effects of Grounding the Human Body During Sleep as Measured by Cortisol Levels and Subjective Reporting of Sleep, Pain, and Stress. J Altern Complement Med. 2004;10(5):767-776. doi:10.1089/acm.2004.10.767
99. Chevalier G. Changes in Pulse Rate, Respiratory Rate, Blood Oxygenation, Perfusion Index, Skin Conductance, and Their Variability Induced During and After Grounding Human Subjects for 40 Minutes. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(1):81-87. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0278
100. Sokal K, Sokal P. Earthing the Human Organism Influences Bioelectrical Processes. J Altern Complement Med. 2012;18(3):229-234. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0683
101. Chevalier G, Melvin G, Barsotti T. One-Hour Contact with the Earth’s Surface (Grounding) Improves Inflammation and Blood Flow—A Randomized, Double-Blind, Pilot Study. Health (N Y). 2015;07(08):1022. doi:10.4236/health.2015.78119
102. Oschman JL, Chevalier G, Brown R. The effects of grounding (earthing) on inflammation, the immune response, wound healing, and prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. J Inflamm Res. 2015;8:83-96. doi:10.2147/JIR.S69656
103. Unger DL. Does knuckle cracking lead to arthritis of the fingers? Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41(5):949-950. doi:10.1002/1529-0131(199805)41:5%3C949::AID-ART36%3E3.0.CO;2-3
104. Galasso A, Caughman AM, Griffith A, et al. A Detailed Analysis of Workplace Foot and Ankle Injuries. Foot Ankle Spec. Published online February 29, 2024:19386400241233844. doi:10.1177/19386400241233844
105. Hoch CP, Caughman A, Griffith A, et al. A Detailed Analysis of Workplace Foot and Ankle Injuries. Foot Ankle Orthop. 2022;7(1):2473011421S00241. doi:10.1177/2473011421S00241
106. Knapik JJ, Swedler DI, Grier TL, et al. Injury Reduction Effectiveness of Selecting Running Shoes Based on Plantar Shape. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(3):685.
doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181a0fc63
107. Knapik JJ, Trone DW, Swedler DI, et al. Injury Reduction Effectiveness of Assigning Running Shoes Based on Plantar Shape in Marine Corps Basic Training. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(9):1759-1767. doi:10.1177/0363546510369548
108. Knapik JJ, Trone DW, Tchandja J, Jones BH. Injury-Reduction Effectiveness of Prescribing Running Shoes on the Basis of Foot Arch Height: Summary of Military Investigations. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2014;44(10):805-812.
doi:10.2519/jospt.2014.5342
109. Hart PM, Smith DR. Preventing Running Injuries Through Barefoot Activity. J Phys Educ Recreat Dance. Published online April 1, 2008. Accessed June 20, 2025.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07303084.2008.10598165
110. Adamczyk K, Garncarczyk A, Antończak P, Wcisło-Dziadecka D. The foot microbiome. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2020;19(5):1039-1043. doi:10.1111/jocd.13368
111. Ross R. Clothing: A Global History. Polity; 2008.
112. DeMello M. Feet and Footwear. Published online 2009:1-384.
113. Pickup S, Waite S. Shoes, Slippers, and Sandals: Feet and Footwear in Classical Antiquity. Routledge; 2018.
114. Tyagi U, Barwal KC. Ignac Semmelweis—Father of Hand Hygiene. Indian J Surg. 2020;82(3):276-277. doi:10.1007/s12262-020-02386-6
115. Baker SP, O’neill B, Haddon WJ, Long WB. THE INJURY SEVERITY SCORE: A METHOD FOR DESCRIBING PATIENTS WITH MULTIPLE INJURIES AND EVALUATING EMERGENCY CARE. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 1974;14(3):187.
2. Franklin S, Grey MJ, Heneghan N, Bowen L, Li FX. Barefoot vs common footwear: A systematic review of the kinematic, kinetic and muscle activity differences during walking. Gait Posture. 2015;42(3):230-239. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.05.019
3. Hollander K, Heidt C, van der Zwaard B, Braumann KM, Zech A. Long-Term Effects of Habitual Barefoot Running and Walking: A Systematic Review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49:752-762. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000001141
4. Trinkaus E, Shang H. Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear: Tianyuan and Sunghir. J Archaeol Sci. 2008;35(7):1928-1933. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.002
5. Trinkaus E. Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear use. J Archaeol Sci. 2005;32(10):1515-1526. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.04.006
6. Hoffmann P. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE FEET OF BAREFOOTED AND SHOE-WEARING PEOPLES. Published online 1905:33.
7. Shulman SB. Survey in China and India of feet that have never worn shoes. J Natl Assoc Chirop. 1949;49:26-30.
8. D’AoÛt K, Pataky TC, De Clercq D, Aerts P. The effects of habitual footwear use: foot shape and function in native barefoot walkers†. Footwear Sci. 2009;1(2):81-94. doi:10.1080/19424280903386411
9. Mei Q, Gu Y, Xiang L, et al. Foot shape and plantar pressure relationships in shod and barefoot populations. Biomech Model Mechanobiol. 2020;19(4):1211-1224. doi:10.1007/s10237-019-01255-w
10. Lythgo N, Wilson C, Galea M. Basic gait and symmetry measures for primary school-aged children and young adults whilst walking barefoot and with shoes. Gait Posture. 2009;30(4):502-506. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2009.07.119
11. Morio C, Lake MJ, Gueguen N, Rao G, Baly L. The influence of footwear on foot motion during walking and running. J Biomech. 2009;42(13):2081-2088. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.06.015
12. Wirth B, Hauser F, Mueller R. Back and neck muscle activity in healthy adults during barefoot walking and walking in conventional and flexible shoes. Footwear Sci. 2011;3(3):159-167. doi:10.1080/19424280.2011.633104
13. Keenan GS, Franz JR, Dicharry J, Croce UD, Kerrigan DC. Lower limb joint kinetics in walking: The role of industry recommended footwear. Gait Posture. 2011;33(3):350-355. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.09.019
14. Zhang X, Paquette MR, Zhang S. A comparison of gait biomechanics of flip-flops, sandals, barefoot and shoes. J Foot Ankle Res. 2013;6(1):45. doi:10.1186/1757-1146-6-45
15. Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, Kester RC, Alexander RM. The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature. 1987;325(6100):147-149. doi:10.1038/325147a0
16. Robbins S, Waked E, Gouw GJ, McClaran J. Athletic footwear affects balance in men. Br J Sports Med. 1994;28(2):117-122.
17. Arndt A, Ekenman I, Westblad P, Lundberg A. Effects of fatigue and load variation on metatarsal deformation measured in vivo during barefoot walking. J Biomech. 2002;35(5):621-628. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(01)00241-X
18. Shine LB. Incidence of Hallux Valgus in a Partially Shoe-wearing Community. Br Med J. 1965;1(5451):1648-1650.
19. Rao U, Joseph B. The influence of footwear on the prevalence of flat foot. A survey of 2300 children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1992;74-B(4):525-527. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.74B4.1624509
20. Abdel-Fattah MM, Hassanin MM, Felembane FA, Nassaane MT. Flat foot among Saudi Arabian army recruits: prevalence and risk factors. East Mediterr Health J. 2006;12(1):7.
21. Piqué-Vidal C, Vila J. A geometric analysis of hallux valgus: correlation with clinical assessment of severity. J Foot Ankle Res. 2009;2(1):15. doi:10.1186/1757-1146-2-15
22. Buldt AK, Menz HB. Incorrectly fitted footwear, foot pain and foot disorders: a systematic search and narrative review of the literature. J Foot Ankle Res. 2018;11(1):43. doi:10.1186/s13047-018-0284-z
23. Hollander K, Petersen E, Zech A, Hamacher D. Effects of barefoot vs. shod walking during indoor and outdoor conditions in younger and older adults. Gait Posture. 2022;95:284-291. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.04.024
24. Yu G, Fan Y, Fan Y, et al. The Role of Footwear in the Pathogenesis of Hallux Valgus: A Proof-of-Concept Finite Element Analysis in Recent Humans and Homo naledi. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2020;8. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00648
25. Puszczałowska-Lizis E, Zarzyczna P, Mikuľáková W. Impact of footwear fitting on foot shape in primary schoolgirls. Acta Bioeng Biomech. 2020;Vol. 22(nr 1). doi:10.37190/ABB-01425-2019-02
26. Sachithanandam V, Joseph B. The influence of footwear on the prevalence of flat foot. A survey of 1846 skeletally mature persons. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77-B(2):254-257. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.77B2.7706341
27. Echarri JJ, Forriol F. The development in footprint morphology in 1851 Congolese children from urban and rural areas, and the relationship between this and wearing shoes. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2003;12(2):141.
28. Wolf S, Simon J, Patikas D, Schuster W, Armbrust P, Döderlein L. Foot motion in children shoes—A comparison of barefoot walking with shod walking in conventional and flexible shoes. Gait Posture. 2008;27(1):51-59. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.01.005
29. Hollander K, van der Zwaard BC, de Villiers JE, Braumann KM, Venter R, Zech A. The effects of being habitually barefoot on foot mechanics and motor performance in children and adolescents aged 6–18 years: study protocol for a multicenter cross-sectional study (Barefoot LIFE project). J Foot Ankle Res. 2016;9(1):36. doi:10.1186/s13047-016-0166-1
30. Hollander K, de Villiers JE, Sehner S, et al. Growing-up (habitually) barefoot influences the development of foot and arch morphology in children and adolescents. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):8079. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07868-4
31. Hollander K, de Villiers JE, Venter R, et al. Foot Strike Patterns Differ Between Children and Adolescents Growing up Barefoot vs. Shod. Int J Sports Med. 2018;39(2):97-103. doi:10.1055/s-0043-120344
32. Klein C, Groll-Knapp E, Kundi M, Kinz W. Increased hallux angle in children and its association with insufficient length of footwear: A community based cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2009;10(1):159. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-10-159
33. Kinz W, Groll-Knapp E, Kundi M. Hallux valgus in pre-school-aged children: the effects of too-short shoes on the hallux angle and the effects of going barefoot on podiatric health. Footwear Sci. 2021;13(1):29-42. doi:10.1080/19424280.2020.1853826
34. González-Elena ML, Castro-Méndez A, Coheña-Jiménez M, Córdoba-Fernández A. Relationship of the Use of Short Footwear with the Development of Hallux Valgus in a Sample of Andalusian Schoolchildren. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(21):11244. doi:10.3390/ijerph182111244
35. Agussalim, Mumin KBHA, Ingkaninan K. Barefoot Walking Habits and their Potential Protective Effect Against Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Qualitative Study among the Kajangand Highland Papua Communities: Research Article. Open J Nurs Res. 2025;1(01):08-13.
36. Barnett CH. The normal orientation of the human hallux and the effect of footwear. Published online 1962:7.
37. Nilsonne H. Hallux Rigidus and Its Treatment. Acta Orthop Scand. 1930;1(1-4):295-303. doi:10.3109/17453673008991145
38. Yee G, Lau J. Current Concepts Review: Hallux Rigidus. Foot Ankle Int. 2008;29(6):637-646. doi:10.3113/FAI.2008.0637
39. Ho B, Baumhauer J. Hallux rigidus. Published online January 25, 2017. Accessed May 29, 2025. https://eor.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eor/2/1/2058-5241.2.160031.xml
40. Alzurahi A. Bunion Symptom Disorder: Surgical and Non-Surgical Treatment. Engineering Archive. Preprint posted online April 20, 2021. doi:10.31224/osf.io/pfqvt
41. Gougoulias N, Lampridis V, Sakellariou A. Morton’s interdigital neuroma: instructional review. Published online January 23, 2019. Accessed June 5, 2025. https://eor.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eor/4/1/2058-5241.4.180025.xml
42. Heifetz CJ. Ingrown toe-nail: A clinical study. Am J Surg. 1937;38(2):298-315. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(37)90439-2
43. Sasagawa Y. Internal environment of footwear is a risk factor for tinea pedis. J Dermatol. 2019;46(11):940-946. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.15060
44. Miao T, Wang P, Zhang N, Li Y. Footwear microclimate and its effects on the microbial community of the plantar skin. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):20356. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99865-x
45. Davis IS, Hollander K, Lieberman DE, Ridge ST, Sacco ICN, Wearing SC. Stepping Back to Minimal Footwear: Applications Across the Lifespan. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2021;49(4):228-243. doi:10.1249/JES.0000000000000263
46. Petersen E, Zech A, Hamacher D. Walking barefoot vs. with minimalist footwear – influence on gait in younger and older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2020;20(1):88. doi:10.1186/s12877-020-1486-3
47. Dames KD, Heise GD, Hydock DS, Smith JD. Obese adults walk differently in shoes than while barefoot. Gait Posture. 2019;70:79-83. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2019.02.016
48. Abdelraouf OR, Abdel-aziem AA. Ankle and foot mechanics in individuals with chronic ankle instability during shod walking and barefoot walking: A cross-sectional study. Chin J Traumatol. 2021;24(03):174-179. doi:10.1016/j.cjtee.2021.02.010
49. Broscheid KC, Zech A. Influence of Barefoot, Minimalist, and Standard Footwear Conditions on Gait and Balance in Healthy Older Adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64(2):435-437. doi:10.1111/jgs.13980
50. Curtis R, Willems C, Paoletti P, D’Août K. Daily activity in minimal footwear increases foot strength. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):18648. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98070-0
51. Futrell E, Kaufman R, Chevan J. Long-Term Effects and Impressions of Minimal Footwear in Older Adults. Gerontology. 2024;70(11):1137-1147. doi:10.1159/000540957
52. Shakoor N, Block JA. Walking barefoot decreases loading on the lower extremity joints in knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(9):2923-2927. doi:10.1002/art.22123
53. Muğrabi S, Feyzioğlu Ö. Comparison of short controlled ankle motion boots and barefoot walking on spatiotemporal gait parameters and plantar pressure distribution. PLOS ONE. 2025;20(3):e0319671. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319671
54. Shultz SP, Houltham SD, Kung SM, Hume P, Fink PW. Metabolic Differences Between Shod and Barefoot Walking in Children. Int J Sports Med. 2016;37(5):401-404. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1569349
55. Yu B, Kramer PA. Walking Speed Alters Barefoot Gait Coordination and Variability. J Mot Behav. 2022;54(4):410-421. doi:10.1080/00222895.2021.1990005
56. Reinstein M, Weisman A, Masharawi Y. Barefoot walking is beneficial for individuals with persistent plantar heel pain: A single-blind randomized controlled trial. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2024;67(2):101786. doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2023.101786
57. Kell CA, Von Kriegstein K, Rösler A, Kleinschmidt A, Laufs H. The Sensory Cortical Representation of the Human Penis: Revisiting Somatotopy in the Male Homunculus. J Neurosci. 2005;25(25):5984-5987. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0712-05.2005
58. Linkenauger SA, Wong HY, Geuss M, et al. The perceptual homunculus: The perception of the relative proportions of the human body. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2015;144(1):103-113. doi:10.1037/xge0000028
59. Kennedy PM, Inglis JT. Distribution and behaviour of glabrous cutaneous receptors in the human foot sole. J Physiol. 2002;538(3):995-1002. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2001.013087
60. Strzalkowski NDJ, Peters RM, Inglis JT, Bent LR. Cutaneous afferent innervation of the human foot sole: what can we learn from single-unit recordings? J Neurophysiol. 2018;120(3):1233-1246. doi:10.1152/jn.00848.2017
61. Cudejko T, Gardiner J, Akpan A, D’Août K. Minimal shoes improve stability and mobility in persons with a history of falls. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):21755. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78862-6
62. Biscarini A, Calandra A, Marcucci A, Panichi R, Belotti A. Enhanced Foot Proprioception Through 3-Minute Walking Bouts with Ultra-Minimalist Shoes on Surfaces That Mimic Highly Rugged Natural Terrains. Biomimetics. 2024;9(12):741. doi:10.3390/biomimetics9120741
63. Simoneau G, Ulbrecht J, Derr J, Cavanagh P. Role of somatosensory input in the control of human posture. Gait Posture. 1995;3(3):115-122. doi:10.1016/0966-6362(95)99061-O
64. Eils E, Nolte S, Tewes M, Thorwesten L, Völker K, Rosenbaum D. Modified pressure distribution patterns in walking following reduction of plantar sensation. J Biomech. 2002;35(10):1307-1313. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00168-9
65. Eils E, Behrens S, Mers O, Thorwesten L, Völker K, Rosenbaum D. Reduced plantar sensation causes a cautious walking pattern. Gait Posture. 2004;20(1):54-60. doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(03)00095-X
66. Höhne A, Ali S, Stark C, Brüggemann GP. Reduced plantar cutaneous sensation modifies gait dynamics, lower-limb kinematics and muscle activity during walking. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(11):3829-3838. doi:10.1007/s00421-012-2364-2
67. Suganuma J, Ikeda Y, Chidori K. Effects of Foot Somatosensory Training on Plantar Somatosensory Function. Cureus. Published online December 26, 2024. doi:10.7759/cureus.76399
68. Holowka NB, Wynands B, Drechsel TJ, et al. Foot callus thickness does not trade off protection for tactile sensitivity during walking. Nature. 2019;571(7764):261-264. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1345-6
69. Lord SR, Mbbs GMB. Shoe Characteristics and Balance in Older Women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44(4):429-433. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb06416.x
70. Rozin Kleiner AF, Galli M, Araujo do Carmo A, Barros RML. Effects of flooring on required coefficient of friction: Elderly adult vs. middle-aged adult barefoot gait. Appl Ergon. 2015;50:147-152. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2015.02.010
71. Romer BH, Weimar W, Fox J. Footwear Alters Lower Extremity Coordination Variability. Percept Mot Skills. 2019;126(5):764-778. doi:10.1177/0031512519863183
72. Tanaka T, Shirogane S, Izumi T, Ino S, Ifukube T. The Effect of Brief Moving Vibratory Stimulation on the Feet for Postural Control in a Comparison Study. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr. 2006;24(1):1-23. doi:10.1080/J148v24n01_01
73. Unver B, Bek N. Plantar sensation, plantar pressure, and postural stability alterations and effects of visual status in older adults. Somatosens Mot Res. 2022;39(1):55-61. doi:10.1080/08990220.2021.1994940
74. Cavlak M, Ata E, Algun ZC. Effect of plantar sensory exercises on balance and fall risk in nursing home elderly. The Foot. 2025;62:102156. doi:10.1016/j.foot.2025.102156
75. Franz JR, Shelton AD, Takahashi KZ, Allen JL. Plantar sensation associates with gait instability in older adults. J NeuroEngineering Rehabil. 2025;22(1):11. doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01555-6
76. Alfuth M, Rosenbaum D. Effects of changes in plantar sensory feedback on human gait characteristics: a systematic review. Footwear Sci. 2012;4(1):1-22. doi:10.1080/19424280.2011.653990
77. D’Août K. Walking on your sensitive sole. Nature. 2019;571(7764):176-177.
doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01953-6
78. Brown KM. The haptic pleasures of ground-feel: The role of textured terrain in motivating regular exercise. Health Place. 2017;46:307-314. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.08.012
79. Francis P, Schofield G, Mackay L. Being barefoot. Prevalence at home, in school and during sport: a cross-sectional survey of 714 New Zealand secondary school boys. J Foot Ankle Res. 2018;11(1):42. doi:10.1186/s13047-018-0285-y
80. Kim JS, Lee MM, Kim DS, Shin CS. Effects of Barefoot Walking in Urban Forests on CRP, IFNγ, and Serotonin Levels. Healthcare. 2024;12(23):2372. doi:10.3390/healthcare12232372
81. Kim T, Seo DY, Bae JH, Han J. Barefoot walking improves cognitive ability in adolescents. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol Off J Korean Physiol Soc Korean Soc Pharmacol. 2024;28(4):295-302. doi:10.4196/kjpp.2024.28.4.295
82. Rickard SC, White MP. Barefoot walking, nature connectedness and psychological restoration: the importance of stimulating the sense of touch for feeling closer to the natural world. Landsc Res. 2021;46(7):975-991. doi:10.1080/01426397.2021.1928034
83. Spiller M. Designing for human-nature connectedness: A case study of the Barefoot Path Spalt, Germany. J Outdoor Recreat Tour. 2024;48:100827. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2024.100827
84. Robbins S, Gouw GJ, McClaran J, Waked E. Protective Sensation of the Plantar Aspect of the Foot. Foot Ankle. 1993;14(6):347-352. doi:10.1177/107110079301400608
85. Sorock GS, Lombardi DA, Hauser RB, Eisen EA, Herrick RF, Mittleman MA. Acute Traumatic Occupational Hand Injuries: Type, Location, and Severity. J Occup Environ Med. 2002;44(4):345.
86. Conti SF, Silverman L. Epidemiology of foot and ankle injuries in the workplace. Foot Ankle Clin. 2002;7(2):273-290. doi:10.1016/S1083-7515(02)00028-1
87. Sorock GS, Lombardi DA, Courtney TK, Cotnam JP, Mittleman MA. Epidemiology of occupational acute traumatic hand injuries: a literature review. Saf Sci. 2001;38(3):241-256. doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(01)00004-2
88. 青柳直子, 内山有子, 小林正子, 柴若光昭, 衞藤隆. 小学校におけるはだし教育と安全に関する意識・態度,および健康習慣との関連性. 民族衛生. 1999;65(4):173-181. doi:10.3861/jshhe.65.173
89. Burnfield JM, Few CD, Mohamed OS, Perry J. The influence of walking speed and footwear on plantar pressures in older adults. Clin Biomech. 2004;19(1):78-84. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2003.09.007
90. Zech A. Beinflussbarkeit des Gang- und Laufverhaltens durch Schuhbedingungen. Orthop. 2023;52(8):626-630. doi:10.1007/s00132-023-04407-0
91. Zech A, Venter R, de Villiers JE, Sehner S, Wegscheider K, Hollander K. Motor Skills of Children and Adolescents Are Influenced by Growing up Barefoot or Shod. Front Pediatr. 2018;6. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00115
92. Romkes J, Rudmann C, Brunner R. Changes in gait and EMG when walking with the Masai Barefoot Technique. Clin Biomech. 2006;21(1):75-81. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.08.003
93. Müller S, Baur H, Ewald A, Hirschmüller A, Mayer F. Redistribution of Load under the Child´s Foot While Walking Shod and with Different Insoles Compared to Barefoot.; 2003.
94. Beck ON, Schroeder JN, Sawicki GS. Habitually wearing high heels may improve user walking economy in any footwear. J Appl Physiol. 2024;136(3):567-572. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00016.2024
95. J. Peters GS M Hendriks ,M. Estimation of the Electrical Conductivity of Human Tissue. Electromagnetics. 2001;21(7-8):545-557.
doi:10.1080/027263401752246199
96. Voldman SH. The state of the art of electrostatic discharge protection: physics, technology, circuits, design, simulation, and scaling. IEEE J Solid-State Circuits. 1999;34(9):1272-1282.
doi:10.1109/4.782088
97. Glor M. Electrostatic ignition hazards in the process industry. J Electrost. 2005;63(6):447-453. doi:10.1016/j.elstat.2005.03.001
98. Ghaly M, Teplitz D. The Biologic Effects of Grounding the Human Body During Sleep as Measured by Cortisol Levels and Subjective Reporting of Sleep, Pain, and Stress. J Altern Complement Med. 2004;10(5):767-776. doi:10.1089/acm.2004.10.767
99. Chevalier G. Changes in Pulse Rate, Respiratory Rate, Blood Oxygenation, Perfusion Index, Skin Conductance, and Their Variability Induced During and After Grounding Human Subjects for 40 Minutes. J Altern Complement Med. 2010;16(1):81-87. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0278
100. Sokal K, Sokal P. Earthing the Human Organism Influences Bioelectrical Processes. J Altern Complement Med. 2012;18(3):229-234. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0683
101. Chevalier G, Melvin G, Barsotti T. One-Hour Contact with the Earth’s Surface (Grounding) Improves Inflammation and Blood Flow—A Randomized, Double-Blind, Pilot Study. Health (N Y). 2015;07(08):1022. doi:10.4236/health.2015.78119
102. Oschman JL, Chevalier G, Brown R. The effects of grounding (earthing) on inflammation, the immune response, wound healing, and prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. J Inflamm Res. 2015;8:83-96. doi:10.2147/JIR.S69656
103. Unger DL. Does knuckle cracking lead to arthritis of the fingers? Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41(5):949-950. doi:10.1002/1529-0131(199805)41:5%3C949::AID-ART36%3E3.0.CO;2-3
104. Galasso A, Caughman AM, Griffith A, et al. A Detailed Analysis of Workplace Foot and Ankle Injuries. Foot Ankle Spec. Published online February 29, 2024:19386400241233844. doi:10.1177/19386400241233844
105. Hoch CP, Caughman A, Griffith A, et al. A Detailed Analysis of Workplace Foot and Ankle Injuries. Foot Ankle Orthop. 2022;7(1):2473011421S00241. doi:10.1177/2473011421S00241
106. Knapik JJ, Swedler DI, Grier TL, et al. Injury Reduction Effectiveness of Selecting Running Shoes Based on Plantar Shape. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(3):685.
doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181a0fc63
107. Knapik JJ, Trone DW, Swedler DI, et al. Injury Reduction Effectiveness of Assigning Running Shoes Based on Plantar Shape in Marine Corps Basic Training. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(9):1759-1767. doi:10.1177/0363546510369548
108. Knapik JJ, Trone DW, Tchandja J, Jones BH. Injury-Reduction Effectiveness of Prescribing Running Shoes on the Basis of Foot Arch Height: Summary of Military Investigations. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2014;44(10):805-812.
doi:10.2519/jospt.2014.5342
109. Hart PM, Smith DR. Preventing Running Injuries Through Barefoot Activity. J Phys Educ Recreat Dance. Published online April 1, 2008. Accessed June 20, 2025.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07303084.2008.10598165
110. Adamczyk K, Garncarczyk A, Antończak P, Wcisło-Dziadecka D. The foot microbiome. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2020;19(5):1039-1043. doi:10.1111/jocd.13368
111. Ross R. Clothing: A Global History. Polity; 2008.
112. DeMello M. Feet and Footwear. Published online 2009:1-384.
113. Pickup S, Waite S. Shoes, Slippers, and Sandals: Feet and Footwear in Classical Antiquity. Routledge; 2018.
114. Tyagi U, Barwal KC. Ignac Semmelweis—Father of Hand Hygiene. Indian J Surg. 2020;82(3):276-277. doi:10.1007/s12262-020-02386-6
115. Baker SP, O’neill B, Haddon WJ, Long WB. THE INJURY SEVERITY SCORE: A METHOD FOR DESCRIBING PATIENTS WITH MULTIPLE INJURIES AND EVALUATING EMERGENCY CARE. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 1974;14(3):187.