The Plague of Caere (c. 535 BCE): Airborne Botulism?
Main Article Content
Adrian Harrison
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6495-5629
Jean Macintosh Turfa
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6495-5629
Jean Macintosh TurfaAbstract
An unusual “plague” that occurred in late 6th-century BCE Italy, at Caere – modern day Cerveteri, located approximately 50-60 kilometres north-northwest of Rome, may have been a rare instance of airborne botulism following an atrocity on the Etruscan seashore, to judge from highly specific details furnished in the surviving account by the historian Herodotus. We have revisited the information available and compared the documented symptoms with likely causes. The hypothetical diagnosis we suggest is that of airborne botulism. In conclusion, an examination of the symptoms and possible modes of transmission in this unique event merits further consideration in the light of modern discoveries of terrorist activities and possible consequences of large-scale human disasters.
Article Details
How to Cite
HARRISON, Adrian; TURFA, Jean Macintosh.
The Plague of Caere (c. 535 BCE): Airborne Botulism?.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], n. 3, may 2015.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/150>. Date accessed: 16 dec. 2024.
Keywords
Botulism; Airborne infection; Etruscan; Plague
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Section
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The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
Agus, A. (2000). “Le Fonti della Battaglia del Mare Sardonio.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Studi e ricerche, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 219-246. Cinisello Balsamo: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Albore Livadie, C. (2002). “A First Pompeii: the Early Bronze Age village of Nola-Croce del Papa (Palma Campania phase),” Antiquity 76, 941-942.
Albore Livadie, C., & Vecchio, G. (2005). “Un Villaggio del Bronzo Antico a Nola-Croce del Papa (Campania),” in P. Attema, A. Nijboer and A. Zifferero, eds., Papers in Italian Archaeology VI. Communities and Settlements from the Neolithic to the Early Medieval Period (Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of Italian Archaeology held at the University of Groningen, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands, April 15-17, 2003 = BAR Int. Ser. 1452[II]), vol. II. Oxford: Archaeopress: 581-587.
Arnon, S.S., Midura, T.F., Damus, K., Thompson, B., Wood, R.M. & Chin, J. (1979). Honey and other environmental risk factors for infant botulism. The Journal of Pediatrics 94, 331-336.
Aufderheide, A.C., & Rodríguez-Martín, C. (1998). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barker, W.H. (1993). “VIII.19. Botulism.” In Cambridge World History of Human Disease, edited by K.F. Kiple, 623-625. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Becker, M.J., Turfa, J.M., & Algee-Hewitt, B. (2009). Human Remains from Etruscan and Italic Tomb Groups in the University of Pennsylvania Museum (Biblioteca di Studi Etruschi 48). Pisa, Rome: Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, Fabrizio Serra Editore.
Bernardini, P. (1999). “Il santuario di Montetosto.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Catalogo della mostra, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 51-52. Cagliari-Oristano: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Bernardini, P. (2001). “La battaglia del Mare Sardo: una rilettura.” RStFen 29, 135-158. Blaser, M.J., Olivares, A., Taylor, D.N., Cornblath, D.R., & McKhann, G.M. (1991).
Campylobacter serology in patients with Chinese paralytic syndrome. The Lancet 338, 308.
Bonfante, L. (2012). “Human Sacrifice. Etruscan Rituals for Death and Life.” In Interpretando l’Antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino, edited by C. Chiaramonte Treré and G. Bagnasco Gianni, 67-82. Milan.
Bonghi Jovino, M., Malegni, F., & Usai, L. (1997). “Una morte violenta. Sul rinvenimento di uno scheletro nell’area del ‘complesso sacro-istituzionale’ della Civita di Tarquinia,” in Aspetti della cultura di Volterra etrusca fra l’eta del ferro e l’età ellenistica, Atti del XIX Convegno di Studi Etruschi ed Italici (Volterra 1995) Florence: Istituto di Studi Etruschi, 489-498.
14
Colonna, G. (1989). “Nuove prospettive sulla storia etrusca tra Alalia e Cuma.” In Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Etrusco (Firenze 1985), 361-374. Rome: Leo S. Olschki Editore.
Colonna, G. (2000). “I Tyrrhenόi e la battaglia del Mare Sardonio.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Studi e ricerche, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 47-56. Cinisello Balsamo: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Dembek, Z.F., Smith, L.A., & Rusnak, J.M. (2007). “Botulism: Cause, Effects, Diagnosis, Clinical and Laboratory Identification, and Treatment Modalities.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 1.2, 122-134.
Donati, L., & Rafanelli, S. (2004). “Il sacrificio nel mondo etrusco.” In Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum (ThesCRA) vol. I, 135-182. Los Angeles: Getty Publications.
Giuman, M. (2008). Melissa. Archeologia delle api e del miele
nella Grecia antica. Rome: G. Bretschneider.
Gras, M. (1997). "L’Occidente e i suoi conflitti." In I Greci: storia, cultura, arte e società. 2. Una storia greca. II. Definizione, edited by S. Settis, 61-85. Torino : Einaudi.
Gras, M. (2000). “La battaglia del Mare Sardonio.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Studi e ricerche, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 37-46. Cinisello Balsamo: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Greenfield, R.A., Brown, B.R., Hutchins, J.B., Iandolo, J.J., Jackson, R., Slater, L.N., & Bronze, M.S. (2002). “Microbiological, Biological, and Chemical Weapons of Warfare and Terrorism.“ American Journal of the Medical Sciences 323.6 (June 2002), 326-340.
Hambleton, P. (1992). Clostridium botulinum toxins: a general review of involvement in disease, structure, mode of action and preparation for clinical use. Journal of Neurology 239, 16-20.
Holzer, E. (1962). “Botulismus durch Inhalation.“ Medizinische Klinik 57, 1735-1738. Huss, H.H., & Pedersen, A. (1979). Clostridium botulinum in fish. Nord Vet-Med. 31, 214-221.
Hyytiä, E., Hielm, S., & Korkeala, H. (1998). Prevalence of Clostridium botulinum type E in Finnish fish and fishery products. Epidemiol Infect 120, 245-250.
Jehasse, J. (1962). "La ‘victoire à la cadméenne’ d’Hérodote (I, 166) et la Corse dans les courants d’expansion grecque." RÉA 1962, 241-286.
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (1973). La nécropole préromaine d’Aléria (1960-1968) avec une étude des graffites par Jacques Heurgon, Gallia XXVe suppl. Paris.
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (2001). Aléria. Nouvelles données de la nécropole, Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient méditerranéen 34. Lyon : Maison de l’Orient méditerranéen.
15
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (2004). Aleria métropole. Les remparts préromains et l’urbanisation romaine. Ajaccio : Éd. du "Journal de la Corse."
Long, S.S., Gajewski, J.L., Brown, L.W., & Gilligan, P.H. (1985). Clinical, laboratory, and environmental features of infant botulism in southeastern Pennsylvania. Pediatrics 75, 935-941.
McGrail, S. (2002). Boats of the World – From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. Oxford University Press, January 2002, ISBN 978-0-19-814468-7.
Maselli, R.A. (1998). “Pathogenesis of Human Botulism.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 841.1, 122-139.
Mastrolorenzo, G., Petrone, P., Pappalardo, L., & Sheridan, M.F. (2006). “The Avellino 3780-yr- B.P. catastrophe as a worst-case scenario for a future eruption of Vesuvius,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.12 (March 21, 2006), 4366-4370.
Mayor, A. (2010). “The Deadly Styx River and the Death of Alexander.” Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, September 2010 = www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/MayorStyx12.pdf (consulted 12/7/2012).
Midura, T.F., & Arnon, S.S. (1976). Infant botulism: Identification of Clostridium botulinum and its toxins in faeces. The Lancet Oct 30, 934-936.
Park, J.-B., & Simpson, L.L. (2003). “Inhalational Poisoning by Botulinum Toxin and Inhalation Vaccination with its Heavy-Chain Component.” Infection and Immunity 71.3 (March 2003), 1147-1154.
Penn, A.S. (2010). “Chap. 138. Botulism and antibiotic-indiced neuromuscular disorders.” In Merritt’s Neurology, 12th ed., edited by L.P. Rowland, T.A. Pedley and H.H. Merritt, 853-854. Philadelphia: Lippincott/Wolters Kluwer.
Poulain, B., Stiles, B.G., Popoff, M.R., & Molgo, J. (2006). “Chap. 19. Attack of the nervous system by clostridial toxins: physical findings, cellular and molecular actions.” In The Comprehensive Sourcebook of Bacterial Protein Toxins, edited by J.E. Alouf and M.R. Popoff, 348-389. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
Purvis, A.L. (trans.) (2009). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, edited by R.B. Strassler, New York: Anchor (original edition 2007).
Rajabally, Y.A., Durand, M-C., Mitchell, J., Orlikowski, D., & Nicolas, G. (2014). Electrophysiological diagnosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome subtype: could a single study suffice? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry – doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-307815.
Reddy, P., & Bleck, T.P. (2009). “Clostridium tetani (Tetanus).” In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 7th ed., edited by G.L. Mandell, J.E. Bennett and R. Dolan, chap 244. Orlando, FL: Saunders Elsevier; 2009. See also PubMedHealth (National Library of Medicine = www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001640 (consulted 12/10/2012).
16
Riet-Correa, F., Medeiros, R.M.T., Tokarnia, C.H., de Carvalho, C.J.S., Franklin, F.L.A.S., Dias, A.C.S., Ferreira, R.M.M., & Silva, S.M.M.S. (2012). “Botulism by Clostridium botulinum type C in goats associated with osteophagia.” Small Ruminant Research 106, 201-205.
Rossetto, O., Pirazzini, M., Bolognese, P., Rigoni, M., & Montecucco, C. (2011). “An Update on the Mechanism of Action of Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxins.” Acta Chimica Slovenica 58.4, 702-707.
Smith, L.DS., & Sugiyama, H. (1988). Botulism. The Organism, Its Toxins, The Disease, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Sobel, J. (2005). “Botulism.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 41, 1167-1173.
Sorrentino, C. (2004). “Il materiale osteologico animale del tumulo di via San Jacopo.” In Archaeologica Pisana. Scritti per Orlando Pancrazi, edited by S. Bruni, T. Caruso and M. Massa, 366-369. Pisa: Giardini Editori.
Steingräber, S. (1986). Etruscan Painting. Catalogue Raisonné of Etruscan Wall Paintings (eds. D. Ridgway and F. R. Serra Ridgway). New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
Sugiyama, H., Prather, J.L., & Woller, M.J. (1986). Lyophilized airborne Clostridium botulinum spores as inocula that intestinally colonize antimicrobially pretreated adult mice. Infection and Immunity 54, 260-261.
Swaddling, J. and S.Woodford (2014). “Lokrian Ajax and the new face of Troilos: the Troilos mirror in the British Museum,” Mediterranea 11, 11-26.
Turfa, J.M. (2012). Divining the Etruscan World. The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Wang, J.F., Mao, X.Y., & Zhao, C. (2014). The changes of serum proteome and tissular pathology in mouse induced by botulinum toxin E injection. Mol Biol Rep 41, 2509-2519.
Warden, P.G. (2009). “The Blood of Animals. Predation and Transformation in Etruscan Funerary Representation.” In New Perspectives on Etruria and Early Rome: In Honor of Richard Daniel De Puma, edited by S. Bell and H. Nagy, 198-219. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
WHO – Fact Sheet No. 270. Botulism. Updated August 2013 www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/
Wilkins, P.A. (2007). “Chap. 46. Botulism.” In Equine Infectious Diseases, edited by D.C. Sellon and M.T. Long, 372-376. St. Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier.
Yadegari, S., Kazemi, N., & Nafissi, S. (2014). Clinical and electrophysiological features of Gullain-Barré syndrome in Iran. J Clin Neuroscience – dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2013.11.041.
Yu, P.A., Maslanka, S.E., St.Louis, M.E., & Swerdlow, D.L. (2009). “Chap. 7. Botulism.” In Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control, edited by P.S. Brachman and E. Abrutyn, 159-176. New York: Springer.
Albore Livadie, C. (2002). “A First Pompeii: the Early Bronze Age village of Nola-Croce del Papa (Palma Campania phase),” Antiquity 76, 941-942.
Albore Livadie, C., & Vecchio, G. (2005). “Un Villaggio del Bronzo Antico a Nola-Croce del Papa (Campania),” in P. Attema, A. Nijboer and A. Zifferero, eds., Papers in Italian Archaeology VI. Communities and Settlements from the Neolithic to the Early Medieval Period (Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of Italian Archaeology held at the University of Groningen, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands, April 15-17, 2003 = BAR Int. Ser. 1452[II]), vol. II. Oxford: Archaeopress: 581-587.
Arnon, S.S., Midura, T.F., Damus, K., Thompson, B., Wood, R.M. & Chin, J. (1979). Honey and other environmental risk factors for infant botulism. The Journal of Pediatrics 94, 331-336.
Aufderheide, A.C., & Rodríguez-Martín, C. (1998). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barker, W.H. (1993). “VIII.19. Botulism.” In Cambridge World History of Human Disease, edited by K.F. Kiple, 623-625. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Becker, M.J., Turfa, J.M., & Algee-Hewitt, B. (2009). Human Remains from Etruscan and Italic Tomb Groups in the University of Pennsylvania Museum (Biblioteca di Studi Etruschi 48). Pisa, Rome: Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, Fabrizio Serra Editore.
Bernardini, P. (1999). “Il santuario di Montetosto.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Catalogo della mostra, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 51-52. Cagliari-Oristano: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Bernardini, P. (2001). “La battaglia del Mare Sardo: una rilettura.” RStFen 29, 135-158. Blaser, M.J., Olivares, A., Taylor, D.N., Cornblath, D.R., & McKhann, G.M. (1991).
Campylobacter serology in patients with Chinese paralytic syndrome. The Lancet 338, 308.
Bonfante, L. (2012). “Human Sacrifice. Etruscan Rituals for Death and Life.” In Interpretando l’Antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino, edited by C. Chiaramonte Treré and G. Bagnasco Gianni, 67-82. Milan.
Bonghi Jovino, M., Malegni, F., & Usai, L. (1997). “Una morte violenta. Sul rinvenimento di uno scheletro nell’area del ‘complesso sacro-istituzionale’ della Civita di Tarquinia,” in Aspetti della cultura di Volterra etrusca fra l’eta del ferro e l’età ellenistica, Atti del XIX Convegno di Studi Etruschi ed Italici (Volterra 1995) Florence: Istituto di Studi Etruschi, 489-498.
14
Colonna, G. (1989). “Nuove prospettive sulla storia etrusca tra Alalia e Cuma.” In Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Etrusco (Firenze 1985), 361-374. Rome: Leo S. Olschki Editore.
Colonna, G. (2000). “I Tyrrhenόi e la battaglia del Mare Sardonio.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Studi e ricerche, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 47-56. Cinisello Balsamo: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Dembek, Z.F., Smith, L.A., & Rusnak, J.M. (2007). “Botulism: Cause, Effects, Diagnosis, Clinical and Laboratory Identification, and Treatment Modalities.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 1.2, 122-134.
Donati, L., & Rafanelli, S. (2004). “Il sacrificio nel mondo etrusco.” In Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum (ThesCRA) vol. I, 135-182. Los Angeles: Getty Publications.
Giuman, M. (2008). Melissa. Archeologia delle api e del miele
nella Grecia antica. Rome: G. Bretschneider.
Gras, M. (1997). "L’Occidente e i suoi conflitti." In I Greci: storia, cultura, arte e società. 2. Una storia greca. II. Definizione, edited by S. Settis, 61-85. Torino : Einaudi.
Gras, M. (2000). “La battaglia del Mare Sardonio.” In Μαχη. La battaglia del Mare Sardonio. Studi e ricerche, edited by P. Bernardini, P.G. Spanu, R. Zucca, 37-46. Cinisello Balsamo: Edizioni La Memoria Storica-Mythos.
Greenfield, R.A., Brown, B.R., Hutchins, J.B., Iandolo, J.J., Jackson, R., Slater, L.N., & Bronze, M.S. (2002). “Microbiological, Biological, and Chemical Weapons of Warfare and Terrorism.“ American Journal of the Medical Sciences 323.6 (June 2002), 326-340.
Hambleton, P. (1992). Clostridium botulinum toxins: a general review of involvement in disease, structure, mode of action and preparation for clinical use. Journal of Neurology 239, 16-20.
Holzer, E. (1962). “Botulismus durch Inhalation.“ Medizinische Klinik 57, 1735-1738. Huss, H.H., & Pedersen, A. (1979). Clostridium botulinum in fish. Nord Vet-Med. 31, 214-221.
Hyytiä, E., Hielm, S., & Korkeala, H. (1998). Prevalence of Clostridium botulinum type E in Finnish fish and fishery products. Epidemiol Infect 120, 245-250.
Jehasse, J. (1962). "La ‘victoire à la cadméenne’ d’Hérodote (I, 166) et la Corse dans les courants d’expansion grecque." RÉA 1962, 241-286.
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (1973). La nécropole préromaine d’Aléria (1960-1968) avec une étude des graffites par Jacques Heurgon, Gallia XXVe suppl. Paris.
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (2001). Aléria. Nouvelles données de la nécropole, Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient méditerranéen 34. Lyon : Maison de l’Orient méditerranéen.
15
Jehasse, J., & Jehasse, L. (2004). Aleria métropole. Les remparts préromains et l’urbanisation romaine. Ajaccio : Éd. du "Journal de la Corse."
Long, S.S., Gajewski, J.L., Brown, L.W., & Gilligan, P.H. (1985). Clinical, laboratory, and environmental features of infant botulism in southeastern Pennsylvania. Pediatrics 75, 935-941.
McGrail, S. (2002). Boats of the World – From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. Oxford University Press, January 2002, ISBN 978-0-19-814468-7.
Maselli, R.A. (1998). “Pathogenesis of Human Botulism.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 841.1, 122-139.
Mastrolorenzo, G., Petrone, P., Pappalardo, L., & Sheridan, M.F. (2006). “The Avellino 3780-yr- B.P. catastrophe as a worst-case scenario for a future eruption of Vesuvius,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.12 (March 21, 2006), 4366-4370.
Mayor, A. (2010). “The Deadly Styx River and the Death of Alexander.” Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, September 2010 = www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/MayorStyx12.pdf (consulted 12/7/2012).
Midura, T.F., & Arnon, S.S. (1976). Infant botulism: Identification of Clostridium botulinum and its toxins in faeces. The Lancet Oct 30, 934-936.
Park, J.-B., & Simpson, L.L. (2003). “Inhalational Poisoning by Botulinum Toxin and Inhalation Vaccination with its Heavy-Chain Component.” Infection and Immunity 71.3 (March 2003), 1147-1154.
Penn, A.S. (2010). “Chap. 138. Botulism and antibiotic-indiced neuromuscular disorders.” In Merritt’s Neurology, 12th ed., edited by L.P. Rowland, T.A. Pedley and H.H. Merritt, 853-854. Philadelphia: Lippincott/Wolters Kluwer.
Poulain, B., Stiles, B.G., Popoff, M.R., & Molgo, J. (2006). “Chap. 19. Attack of the nervous system by clostridial toxins: physical findings, cellular and molecular actions.” In The Comprehensive Sourcebook of Bacterial Protein Toxins, edited by J.E. Alouf and M.R. Popoff, 348-389. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
Purvis, A.L. (trans.) (2009). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, edited by R.B. Strassler, New York: Anchor (original edition 2007).
Rajabally, Y.A., Durand, M-C., Mitchell, J., Orlikowski, D., & Nicolas, G. (2014). Electrophysiological diagnosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome subtype: could a single study suffice? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry – doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-307815.
Reddy, P., & Bleck, T.P. (2009). “Clostridium tetani (Tetanus).” In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 7th ed., edited by G.L. Mandell, J.E. Bennett and R. Dolan, chap 244. Orlando, FL: Saunders Elsevier; 2009. See also PubMedHealth (National Library of Medicine = www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001640 (consulted 12/10/2012).
16
Riet-Correa, F., Medeiros, R.M.T., Tokarnia, C.H., de Carvalho, C.J.S., Franklin, F.L.A.S., Dias, A.C.S., Ferreira, R.M.M., & Silva, S.M.M.S. (2012). “Botulism by Clostridium botulinum type C in goats associated with osteophagia.” Small Ruminant Research 106, 201-205.
Rossetto, O., Pirazzini, M., Bolognese, P., Rigoni, M., & Montecucco, C. (2011). “An Update on the Mechanism of Action of Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxins.” Acta Chimica Slovenica 58.4, 702-707.
Smith, L.DS., & Sugiyama, H. (1988). Botulism. The Organism, Its Toxins, The Disease, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Sobel, J. (2005). “Botulism.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 41, 1167-1173.
Sorrentino, C. (2004). “Il materiale osteologico animale del tumulo di via San Jacopo.” In Archaeologica Pisana. Scritti per Orlando Pancrazi, edited by S. Bruni, T. Caruso and M. Massa, 366-369. Pisa: Giardini Editori.
Steingräber, S. (1986). Etruscan Painting. Catalogue Raisonné of Etruscan Wall Paintings (eds. D. Ridgway and F. R. Serra Ridgway). New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
Sugiyama, H., Prather, J.L., & Woller, M.J. (1986). Lyophilized airborne Clostridium botulinum spores as inocula that intestinally colonize antimicrobially pretreated adult mice. Infection and Immunity 54, 260-261.
Swaddling, J. and S.Woodford (2014). “Lokrian Ajax and the new face of Troilos: the Troilos mirror in the British Museum,” Mediterranea 11, 11-26.
Turfa, J.M. (2012). Divining the Etruscan World. The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Wang, J.F., Mao, X.Y., & Zhao, C. (2014). The changes of serum proteome and tissular pathology in mouse induced by botulinum toxin E injection. Mol Biol Rep 41, 2509-2519.
Warden, P.G. (2009). “The Blood of Animals. Predation and Transformation in Etruscan Funerary Representation.” In New Perspectives on Etruria and Early Rome: In Honor of Richard Daniel De Puma, edited by S. Bell and H. Nagy, 198-219. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
WHO – Fact Sheet No. 270. Botulism. Updated August 2013 www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/
Wilkins, P.A. (2007). “Chap. 46. Botulism.” In Equine Infectious Diseases, edited by D.C. Sellon and M.T. Long, 372-376. St. Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier.
Yadegari, S., Kazemi, N., & Nafissi, S. (2014). Clinical and electrophysiological features of Gullain-Barré syndrome in Iran. J Clin Neuroscience – dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2013.11.041.
Yu, P.A., Maslanka, S.E., St.Louis, M.E., & Swerdlow, D.L. (2009). “Chap. 7. Botulism.” In Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control, edited by P.S. Brachman and E. Abrutyn, 159-176. New York: Springer.