Intervention Targeting Reading and Working Memory among Struggling Readers in Primary School
Main Article Content
Abstract
Working memory is one of our core cognitive functions. It allows us to keep information in mind for shorter periods of time, allowing us to process and work with that specific information. In this randomized control trial, the effects of a training program that combine reading training and working memory training among struggling readers aged 8-9 were investigated. 30 pupils were included in the intervention group and 17 were assigned to the control group. The intervention group received a total of 60 training sessions divided into two eight-week training periods with a four-week pause in between. The results show that children in the intervention group improved significantly better than children in the control group on eight tests: Reading comprehension, Word decoding, Nonsense-word reading, Short-term memory, Working memory, Visuospatial short-term memory, Visuospatial working memory and Working memory for words. The effect was not confirmed for Sight word seeing.
Keywords:
Reading, reading difficulties, working memory, intervention, RCT
Article Details
How to Cite
FÄLTH, Linda; BRKOVIC, Irma.
Intervention Targeting Reading and Working Memory among Struggling Readers in Primary School.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 11, nov. 2021.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/2610>. Date accessed: 25 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v9i11.2610.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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21. Gathercole, S. E., Woolgar, F., Kievit, R. A., Astle, D., Manly, T., Holmes, J., & CALM Team. (2016). How common are WM deficits in children with difficulties in reading and mathematics?. Journal of applied research in memory and cognition, 5(4), 384-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.013
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33. Elliott, J. G., Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Holmes, J., & Kirkwood, H. (2010). An evaluation of a classroom-based intervention to help overcome working memory difficulties and improve long-term academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 9(3), 227-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1945-8959.9.3.227
34. Johann, V., Könen, T., & Karbach, J. (2020). The unique contribution of working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and intelligence to reading comprehension and reading speed. Child Neuropsychology, 26(3), 324-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2019.1649381
35. Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C. M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W. D. (2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention in the primary grades. A practice guide.
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41. Suggate, S. P. (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(1), 77-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219414528540
42. Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S. A. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: a meta-analytic review. Psychological bulletin, 138(2), 322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026744
43. Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of learning disabilities, 43(5), 441-454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219409355476
44. Dahlin, K. I. (2013). Does it pay to practice?: a quasi-experimental study on working memory training and its effects on reading and basic number skills (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Special Education, Stockholm University).
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2. Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The relationship between working memory and mathematical problem solving in children at risk and not at risk for serious math difficulties. Journal of educational psychology, 96(3), 471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471
3. Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship. Applied psycholinguistics, 27(4), 513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0142716406060383
4. Nevo, E., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). The development of working memory from kindergarten to first grade in children with different decoding skills. Journal of experimental child psychology, 114(2), 217-228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.004
5. Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 6, 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063
6. Burns, M. K., Davidson, K., Zaslofsky, A. F., Parker, D. C., & Maki, K. E. (2018). The relationship between acquisition rate for words and working memory, short-term memory, and reading skills: Aptitude-by-treatment or skill-by-treatment interaction?. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 43(3), 182-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1534508417730822
7. Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., ... & Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of child & adolescent psychiatry, 44(2), 177-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010
8. Peng, P., Barnes, M., Wang, C., Wang, W., Li, S., Swanson, H. L., ... & Tao, S. (2018). A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory. Psychological bulletin, 144(1), 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000124
9. Shiran, A., & Breznitz, Z. (2011). The effect of cognitive training on recall range and speed of information processing in the working memory of dyslexic and skilled readers. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 24(5), 524-537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2010.12.001
10. Gray, S., Fox, A. B., Green, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T. P., Petscher, Y., & Cowan, N. (2019). Working memory profiles of children with dyslexia, developmental language disorder, or both. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(6), 1839-1858. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-L-18-0148
11. Horowitz-Kraus, T., & Breznitz, Z. (2009). Can the error detection mechanism benefit from training the working memory? A comparison between dyslexics and controls an ERP study. PloS one, 4(9), e7141.
12. Dahlin, K. I. (2011). Effects of working memory training on reading in children with special needs. Reading and writing, 24(4), 479-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9238-y
13. Morris, R. D., Lovett, M. W., Wolf, M., Sevcik, R. A., Steinbach, K. A., Frijters, J. C., & Shapiro, M. B. (2012). Multiple-component remediation for developmental reading disabilities: IQ, socioeconomic status, and race as factors in remedial outcome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(2), 99-127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219409355472
14. Otaiba, S., & Fuchs, D. (2006). Who are the young children for whom best practices in reading are ineffective? An experimental and longitudinal study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(5), 414-431.
15. Loosli, S. V., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2012). Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children. Child Neuropsychology, 18(1), 62-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.575772
16. Archibald, L. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Short‐term and working memory in specific language impairment. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 41(6), 675-693. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13682820500442602
17. Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child development, 973-980. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1131037
18. Kudo, M. F., Lussier, C. M., & Swanson, H. L. (2015). Reading disabilities in children: A selective meta-analysis of the cognitive literature. Research in developmental disabilities, 40, 51-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.01.002
19. Swanson, H. L., Zheng, X., & Jerman, O. (2009). Working memory, short-term memory, and reading disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of learning disabilities, 42(3), 260-287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219409331958
20. Baddeley, A., Gathercole, S., & Papagno, C. (1998). The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological review, 105(1), 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.1.158
21. Gathercole, S. E., Woolgar, F., Kievit, R. A., Astle, D., Manly, T., Holmes, J., & CALM Team. (2016). How common are WM deficits in children with difficulties in reading and mathematics?. Journal of applied research in memory and cognition, 5(4), 384-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.013
22. Metsala, J. L. (1999). Young children's phonological awareness and nonword repetition as a function of vocabulary development. Journal of educational psychology, 91(1), 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.3
23. Ramus, F., Marshall, C. R., Rosen, S., & Van Der Lely, H. K. (2013). Phonological deficits in specific language impairment and developmental dyslexia: towards a multidimensional model. Brain, 136(2), 630-645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws356
24. Pennington, B. F., & Bishop, D. V. (2009). Relations among speech, language, and reading disorders. Annual review of psychology, 60, 283-306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163548
25. Klingberg, T. (2013). The learning brain: Memory and brain development in children. Oxford University Press.
26. Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (2018). Wait… What??? Guiding Intervention Principles for Students With Verbal Working Memory Limitations. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 49(3), 449-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0101
27. Kamhi, A. G., & Catts, H. W. (2013). Language and Reading Disabilities: Pearson New International Edition. Pearson Higher Ed.
28. Peijnenborgh, J. C., Hurks, P. M., Aldenkamp, A. P., Vles, J. S., & Hendriksen, J. G. (2016). Efficacy of working memory training in children and adolescents with learning disabilities: A review study and meta-analysis. Neuropsychological rehabilitation, 26(5-6), 645-672. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2015.1026356
29. Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental psychology, 49(2), 270. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028228
30. Chacko, A., Bedard, A. C., Marks, D. J., Feirsen, N., Uderman, J. Z., Chimiklis, A., ... & Ramon, M. (2014). A randomized clinical trial of Cogmed working memory training in school‐age children with ADHD: A replication in a diverse sample using a control condition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(3), 247-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12146
31. Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Elliott, J. (2010). Examining the link between working memory behaviour and academic attainment in children with ADHD. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52(7), 632-636. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03603.x
32. St Clair‐Thompson, H., Stevens, R., Hunt, A., & Bolder, E. (2010). Improving children's working memory and classroom performance. Educational Psychology, 30(2), 203-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410903509259
33. Elliott, J. G., Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Holmes, J., & Kirkwood, H. (2010). An evaluation of a classroom-based intervention to help overcome working memory difficulties and improve long-term academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 9(3), 227-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1945-8959.9.3.227
34. Johann, V., Könen, T., & Karbach, J. (2020). The unique contribution of working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and intelligence to reading comprehension and reading speed. Child Neuropsychology, 26(3), 324-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2019.1649381
35. Gersten, R., Compton, D., Connor, C. M., Dimino, J., Santoro, L., Linan-Thompson, S., & Tilly, W. D. (2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention in the primary grades. A practice guide.
36. Snow, C. E., Burns, S. M., & Griffin, P. (1998). Predictors of success and failure in reading. Preventing reading difficulties in young children, 137-171.
37. National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health, & Human Development (US). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.
38. Hernandez, N., Andersson, F., Edjlali, M., Hommet, C., Cottier, J. P., Destrieux, C., & Bonnet‐Brilhault, F. (2013). Cerebral functional asymmetry and phonological performance in dyslexic adults. Psychophysiology, 50(12), 1226-1238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12141
39. Smith-Spark, J. H., & Fisk, J. E. (2007). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory, 15(1), 34-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658210601043384
40. Hatcher, P. J., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Explicit phoneme training combined with phonic reading instruction helps young children at risk of reading failure. Journal of child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 338-358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00225.x
41. Suggate, S. P. (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(1), 77-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219414528540
42. Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S. A. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: a meta-analytic review. Psychological bulletin, 138(2), 322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026744
43. Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of learning disabilities, 43(5), 441-454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219409355476
44. Dahlin, K. I. (2013). Does it pay to practice?: a quasi-experimental study on working memory training and its effects on reading and basic number skills (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Special Education, Stockholm University).
45. Castro-Caldas, A., & Reis, A. (2003). The knowledge of orthography is a revolution in the brain. Reading and Writing, 16(1), 81-97.
46. Lundberg, I. (2001). Vilken bild är rätt? Stockholm: Natur och kultur.
47. Jacobson, C. (2014). Läskedjor 2 Handledning. Stockholm: Hogrefe.
48. Elwér, Å., Fridolfsson, I., Samuelsson, S., & Wiklund, C. (2013). LäSt-Test i läsförståelse, läsning och stavning. Stockholm: Hogrefe Psykologiförlaget AB.
49. Petermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2011). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children®–Fourth Edition. Frankf. M Pearson Assess.
50. Corsi, P. (1973). Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34(2-B), 891.
51. Heimann, M., Lundälv, M., Tjus, T., & Nelson, K. E. (2004). Omega–Interactive Sentences, a multimedia software for language exploration and play. Göteborg: Topic Data & Språkbehandling HB.
52. Gathercole, S., & Alloway, T. P. (2008). Working memory and learning: A practical guide for teachers. Sage.
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