The Evolution of Human Circadian Rhythms: An Ancient Defence Mechanism Impacting Modern Life-Styles
Main Article Content
Abstract
Circadian rhythms are a feature of almost all living cells. When isolated from external stimuli, organisms exhibit self-sustaining cycles in behaviour, physiology and metabolism, with a period of approximately 24 hours. Sunlight is used to entrain this endogenously generated rhythmicity to the earth’s rotation to provide a three-dimensional perception of the world plus the fourth external dimension, time.
I hypothetically trace the evolution of the system from blue-light photoreception by the earliest marine organisms to the rise of photosynthetic bacteria creating an aerobic environment. Species now had to contend with the exogenous threat of UV radiation plus the endogenous toxic by-products of oxidative phosphorylation. Mammalian systems incorporated tools from earlier systems but refined them to the present highly integrated system of control of physiology. Cryptochrome, the blue light photoreceptor, is incorporated but photoreception now the domain of opsins in the retina. The system having central control by the suprachiasmatic nucleus within the hypothalamus, well placed to receive light information from the retina but also communicating with other brain areas and the periphery through neural and hormonal links.
This system still has relevance to us as humans within our modern environment, since a de-synchronised circadian system can contribute to a number of diseases.
Article Details
How to Cite
SMITH, David John Mackay.
The Evolution of Human Circadian Rhythms: An Ancient Defence Mechanism Impacting Modern Life-Styles.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 10, n. 7, july 2022.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/2926>. Date accessed: 25 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i7.2926.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
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35. Ramsey, K., Yoshino, J., Brace, C., et al. Circadian clock feedback cycle through NAMPT-mediated NAD+ biosynthesis. 2009. Science; 324:651-654.
36. Smith, D. Circadian rhythms: influence on skin cancer and exposure paradigms. 2021. Medical Res. Arch; 10(1): 1-13.
37. Moore, R., Eichler, V. Loss of a circadian adrenal corticosteroid rhythm following suprachiasmatic lesions in the rat. 1972. Brain Res; 42: 201-206.
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39. Damiola, F. Restricted feeding uncouples circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues from the central pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. 2000. Genes Dev;14: 2950-2961.
40. Wolff, G., Esser, K. Scheduled exercise phase shifts the circadian clock in skeletal muscle. 2012. Sci. Sports Exerc; Med. 44: 1663-1670.
41. Lund, J., Arendt, J., Hampton, S., et al. Postprandial hormone and metabolic responses among shift workers in Antarctica. 2001. J. Endocrinology; 171(3): 557-564.
42. Lin, Y., Hsiao, T., Chen, P. Persistent rotating shift worker’s exposure accelerates development of metabolic syndrome among middle -aged female employees: a 5-year follow-up. 2009. Chronobiol. Inter; 26(4): 740-755.
43. Burgueño, A., Gemma, C., Gianotti, T., et al. Increased levels of resistin in rotating shift workers: a potential mediator of cardiovascular risk associated with circadian misalignment. 2010. Atherosclerosis; 210(2); 625-629.
44. Chen, J., Lim, Y., Hsiao S. Obesity and increased blood pressure of 12-hour night shift female clean-room workers. 2010. Chronobiol. Inter; 27(2): 334-344.
45. National Sleep Foundation. 2008. Sleep in Americal. Poll.
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47. Kim, T., Jeong, J-H., Hong, S-C. The impact of sleep and circadian disturbance on hormones and metabolism. 2015. Inter. J. Endocrinology.Vol 2015: article ID 591729.
2. Ch, R., Rey, C., Ray, G. Rhythmic glucose metabolism regulates the redox circadian clock in human red blood cells. 2021. Nature Communications. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20379-4.
3. Sancar, A. Cryptochrome: The second photoactive pigment in the eye and its role in circadian photoreception. 2000. Annu. Rev. Biochem; 69: 31-67.
4. Gehring, W. & Rosbash, M. The co-evolution of blue-light photoreception and circadian rhythms. 2003. J. Molec. Evolution; 57: 286-289.
5. Sancar, A. Structure and function of DNA photolyase and cryptochrome blue-light photoreceptors. 2003. Chem. Rev;103 : 2203-2237.
6. Cashmore, A. Cryptochromes: Enabling plants and animals to determine circadian time. 2003. Cell; 114: 537-543.
7. Emery, P, So, W., Kaneko, M., et al. CRY, a Drosophila clock and light regulating cryptochrome is a major contributor to circadian rhythm resetting and photosensitivity. 1998. Cell; 95: 669-679.
8. Michael, A., Frebourgh, J, Gelder, R, et al. Animal cryptochromes: Divergent roles in light perception, circadian timekeeping and beyond. 2017. Photochem. Photobiol; 93(1): 128-140.
9. Huang, R., Zhou, P-K. DNA damage repair: Historical perspectives, mechanistic pathways and clinical translation for targeted cancer therapy. 2021. Signal trans. & targeted therapy: 6:254. https:// doi.org/10.1038/341392-021-00648-7.
10. Vechtomova, Y., Telegina, T., Buglak, A., et al. UV radiation in DNA damage and repair involving DNA-photolyases and cryptochromes. 2021. Biomedicines; 9: 1564. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines 9111564.
11. Prorok, P., Grin, I., Matkarimov, B., et al. Evolutionary origins of DNA repair pathways: Role of oxygen catastrophe in the emergence of DNA glycosylases. 2021. Cell; 10 :1591.
12. Edgar, R., Green, E., Zhao, Y., et al. Peroxiredoxins are conserved markers of circadian rhythms. 2012. Nature; 485(7399): 495-U65.
13. Pool, L., Hall, A., Nelson, K. Overview of peroxiredoxins in oxidant defence and redox regulation. 2011. Curr. Protoc. Toxicol; 49: 7.9.1-7.9.15.
14. Rhee, S., Woo, H., Kil, I., et al. Peroxiredoxin function as a peroxidase and a regulator and sensor of local peroxides. 2012. J. Biol. Chem; 287: 4403-4410.
15. Wood, Z., Pool, L., Karplus, P. Peroxiredoxin evolution and the regulation of hydrogen peroxide signalling. 2003. Science; 300: 650-653.
16. Wood, Z., Schroder, E., Harris, R., et al. Structure, mechanism and regulation of peroxiredoxin. 2003. Trends Biochem. Sci; 28: 32-40.
17. Katada, S., Imhof, A., Sassone-Corsi, P. Connecting threads: epigenetics and metabolism. 2012. Cell; 148: 24-28.
18. Nakahata, Y., Kaluzova, M., Grimaldi, B, et al. The NAD+-dependent deacetylase SIRT1 modulates CLOCK-mediated chromatin remodelling and circadian control. 2008. Cell; 134: 329-340.
19. Nakahata, Y., Sahar, S., Astarita, L. et al. Circadian control of the NAD+ salvage pathway by CLOCK-SIRT1. 2009. Science; 324: 654-657.
20. Wulund, L, Reddy, A. A brief history of circadian time: the emergence of redox regulation as a novel component of biological rhythms. 2015. Perspectives in Sci; 6: 27-37.
21. Wang, M., et al. A universal molecular clock of protein folds and its power in tracing the early history of aerobic metabolism and planet oxygenation. 2011. Molec. Biol. Evol; 28(1): 567-582.
22. Zelko, I., Mariani, T., Folz, R. Superoxide dismutase multigene family: a comparison of the CuZn-SOD (SOD1), Mn-SOD (SOD2), and EC-SOD (SOD3) gene structures, evolution and expression. 2002. Free Radic. Biol. Med.;33: 337-349.
23. Ushio-Fukai, M. Localising NADPH oxidase-derived ROS. 2006. Sci. Signal Transduct. Knowl. Environ; 2006:re8.
24. Rhee, S., Kil, I. Multiple functions and regulation of mammalian peroxiredoxin. 2017. Ann. Rev. Biochem. https:// doi.org/10.1146 annurev-biochem-060815-014431.
25. Woo, H., Yein, S., Shu, D., et al. Inactivation of peroxiredoxin by phosphorylation allows localised H2O2 accumulation for cell signalling. 2010. Cell; 140: 23-33.
26. Chiarugi, P., Src redox regulation: there is more than meets the eye. 2008. Mol. Cells; 26: 329-337.
27. Buijs, R., Hou, Y., Shinn, S., et al. Ultrasonic evidence for the infra- and extranuclear projections of GABAergic neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. 1994. J Comp. Neurol; 340: 381-391.
28. Kalsbeek, A., Teclemarian-Mesbah, R., Pévet, P., et al. Efferent projections of the Suprachiasmatic nucleus in the golden hamster. 1993. J. Comp. Neurol; 332: 293-314.
29. Buijs, F., Guzmán-Ruiz, M., Léon-Mercado, L., et al. Suprachiasmatic nuclear interactions with the arcuate nucleus; essential for organisation of physiological rhythms. 2017. eNeuro, 4.
30. Rutter, J., Reick, M., Wa, L., et al. Regulation of CLOCK and NPAS2 DNA binding by the redox state of NAD cofactors. 2001. Science; 293: 510-514.
31. Aguilar-Arnal, L., Ranjit, S., Stringari, C., et al. Spatial dynamics of SIRT1 and the subnuclear distribution of NADH species. 2016. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA; 113: 12715-12720.
32. Stangherlin, A., Reddy, A. Regulation of circadian clock by redox homeostasis. 2013. J. Biol. Chem; 288: 26505-26511.
33. Wible, R., Ramanathan, C., Sutter, C., et al. NRF2 regulation core and stabilise circadian clock loops, coupling redox and timekeeping in Mus Musculus. 2018. eLife, 7. e31656.
34. Lania, K., Sachdeva, U., Di Tacchio, L., et al. AMPK regulation of the circadian clock by cryptochrome phosphorylation and degradation. 2009. Science; 326: 437-440.
35. Ramsey, K., Yoshino, J., Brace, C., et al. Circadian clock feedback cycle through NAMPT-mediated NAD+ biosynthesis. 2009. Science; 324:651-654.
36. Smith, D. Circadian rhythms: influence on skin cancer and exposure paradigms. 2021. Medical Res. Arch; 10(1): 1-13.
37. Moore, R., Eichler, V. Loss of a circadian adrenal corticosteroid rhythm following suprachiasmatic lesions in the rat. 1972. Brain Res; 42: 201-206.
38. Stephan, F., Zuker, I. Circadian rhythms in drinking behaviour and locomotor activity in rats are eliminated by hypothalamic lesions. 1972. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA: 69: 1583-1586.
39. Damiola, F. Restricted feeding uncouples circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues from the central pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. 2000. Genes Dev;14: 2950-2961.
40. Wolff, G., Esser, K. Scheduled exercise phase shifts the circadian clock in skeletal muscle. 2012. Sci. Sports Exerc; Med. 44: 1663-1670.
41. Lund, J., Arendt, J., Hampton, S., et al. Postprandial hormone and metabolic responses among shift workers in Antarctica. 2001. J. Endocrinology; 171(3): 557-564.
42. Lin, Y., Hsiao, T., Chen, P. Persistent rotating shift worker’s exposure accelerates development of metabolic syndrome among middle -aged female employees: a 5-year follow-up. 2009. Chronobiol. Inter; 26(4): 740-755.
43. Burgueño, A., Gemma, C., Gianotti, T., et al. Increased levels of resistin in rotating shift workers: a potential mediator of cardiovascular risk associated with circadian misalignment. 2010. Atherosclerosis; 210(2); 625-629.
44. Chen, J., Lim, Y., Hsiao S. Obesity and increased blood pressure of 12-hour night shift female clean-room workers. 2010. Chronobiol. Inter; 27(2): 334-344.
45. National Sleep Foundation. 2008. Sleep in Americal. Poll.
46. Leproult, R., Holmbäck, U., van Cauter, E. Circadian misalignment augments markers of insulin resistance and inflammation, independent of sleep loss. 2014. Diabetes; 63(6): 1860-1869.
47. Kim, T., Jeong, J-H., Hong, S-C. The impact of sleep and circadian disturbance on hormones and metabolism. 2015. Inter. J. Endocrinology.Vol 2015: article ID 591729.