Consequences of U.S. COVID-19 Policy in 2024

Main Article Content

Charles M. Lepkowsky, Ph.D

Abstract

COVID-19 is entering its fifth year as an active contagion. The evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic is explored with attention to epidemiology, virology, prevalence and prevalence variations based on geographic regionality, age, gender, political affiliation and other variables, policy, proliferation of variants, evidence-based methods for diagnosis, vaccination, testing and treatment, COVID complications, and long COVID. Current consequences of COVID-19 party politics are described including current vaccination and mortality rates, long COVID denialism, COVID exceptionalism, abandonment of safety protocols, adverse outcomes and fatalities, healthcare provider burnout, impact on access to healthcare, economic impact, impact on population-wide IQ, and likely contagion trajectory. Specific recommendations are made for COVID-19 pandemic management.

Keywords: COVID-19, policy, long COVID, variants, neurological impairments, burnout

Article Details

How to Cite
LEPKOWSKY, Charles M.. Consequences of U.S. COVID-19 Policy in 2024. Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 5, may 2024. ISSN 2375-1924. Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/5352>. Date accessed: 09 oct. 2024. doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i5.5352.
Section
Research Articles

References

1. Enriquez M. Special Issue: 4th anniversary of the COVID-19 pandemic. Hisp Health Care Int. 2024 Mar;22(1):2. doi: 10.1177/15404153 241227306. PMID: 38300550

2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID Data Tracker: COVID-19 update for the United States. 2024. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#datatracker-home

3. Waxman OB & Wilson C. How the Coronavirus death toll compares to other deadly events From American history. TIME Magazine. Originally published Apr 6, 2020, updated Sep 1, 2021.
https://time.com/5815367/coronavirus-deaths-comparison/

4. Stone W & Feibel C. Comparing death tolls from Covid to past wars is fraught. Kaiser Family Foundation Health News. Feb 5, 2021; https://kffhealthnews.org/news/article/comparing-death-tolls-from-covid-to-past-wars-is-fraught/

5. World Health Organization. The true death toll of COVID-19. 2024. https://www.who.int/data/stories/the-true-death-toll-of-covid-19-estimating-global-excess-mortality]

6. Msemburi W, Karlinsky A, Knutson V, Aleshin-Guendel S, Chatterji S & Wakefield J. The WHO estimates of excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature. 2023; 613:130–137.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05522-2

7. Ahmad FB, Cisewski JA, Xu J, Anderson RN. Provisional Mortality Data — United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:488–492. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7218a3

8. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services: Data. CMS.gov. COVID-19 vaccination rates - State and national averages. Mar 28, 2024; https://data.cms.gov/provider-data/dataset/avax-cv19

9. Ye X. Exploring the relationship between political partisanship and COVID-19 vaccination rate. J Public Health (Oxf). 2023 Mar 14;45(1): 91-98. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdab364. PMID: 34693447.

10. Alemi F, Lee KH. Impact of political leaning on COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: A network-based multiple mediation analysis. Cureus. 2023 Aug 9;15(8):e43232. doi: 10.7759/cureus.43232. PMID: 37692573; PMCID: PMC10491458.

11. Kaiser Family Foundation. Global COVD-19 tracker. Mar 18, 2024;
https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/global-covid-19-tracker/

12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID Data Tracker: Wastewater surveillance. Apr 1, 2024;
https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#wastewater-surveillance

13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVD Data Tracker. 2022-2023 Nationwide COVID-19 Infection- and Vaccination-Induced Antibody Seroprevalence (Blood donations). 2024.
https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#nationwide-blood-donor-seroprevalence-2022

14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What is COVID-19 Reinfection? Mar 15, 2023.
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/reinfection.html#:~:text=As%20the%20virus%20evolves%2C%20new,increase%20your%20risk%20of%20reinfection

15. Global Center for Health Security. Every COVID infection increases your risk of long COVID, study warns. University of Nebraska Medical College. Dec 27, 2023; https://www.unmc.edu/healthsecurity/transmission/2023/12/27/every-covid-infection-increases-your-risk-of-long-covid-study-warns/

16. Bartels M. Rampant COVID Poses New Challenges in the Fifth Year of the Pandemic. Sci Am. Feb 6, 2024;
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rampant-covid-poses-new-challenges-in-the-fifth-year-of-the-pandemic/

17. Colarossi J. Is COVID-19 Still a Pandemic? The Brink, Boston University. Mar 4, 2024; https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/is-covid-19-still-a-pandemic/#:~:text=And%20some%2C%20like%20smallpox%2C%20continue,and%20it's%20not%20fading%20away

18. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Renewal of determination that a public health emergency exists. 2020 Jun 23. https://www.phe.gov/emergency/news/healthactions/phe/Pages/covid19-23June2020.aspx

19. Heinrich MA, Martina B, Prakash.2020. Nanomedicine strategies to target coronavirus. J.Nano Today. 2020 Dec;35: 100961. doi: 10.1016/j.nantod.2020.100961.

20. Ahn DG, Shin HJ, Kim MH, Lee S, Kim HS, Myoung J, Kim BT, Kim SJ. Current status of epidemiology, diagnosis, therapeutics, and vaccines for novel Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020 Mar 28;30(3):313-324. doi: 10.4014/jmb.2003.03011. PMID: 32238757

21. Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winardi W, Keam S, Te H, Megawati D, Hayati Z, Wagner AL, Mudatsir M. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A literature review. J Infect Public Health. 2020 May;13(5):667-673. doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.03.019. Epub 2020 Apr 8. PMID: 32340833; PMCID: PMC7142680.

22. Li H, Liu SM, Yu XH, Tang SL, Tang CK. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspectives. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 May;55(5):105951. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105951. Epub 2020 Mar 29. PMID: 32234466; PMCID: PMC7139247.

23. Pascarella G, Strumia A, Piliego C, Bruno F, Del Buono R, Costa F, Scarlata S, Agrò FE. COVID-19 diagnosis and management: a comprehensive review. J Intern Med. 2020 Aug;288(2):192-206. doi: 10.1111/joim.13091. Epub 2020 May 13. PMID: 32348588; PMCID: PMC7267177

24. Wu S, Neill R, De Foo C, Chua A Q, Jung A, Haldane V et al. Aggressive containment, suppression, and mitigation of covid-19: lessons learnt from eight countries. BMJ. 2021; 375:e067508 doi:10.1136/bmj-2021-067508

25. World Health Organization. Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation. https://www.who.int/news/item/23-09-2020-managing-the-covid-19-infodemic-promoting-healthy-behaviours-and-mitigating-the-harm-from-misinformation-and-disinformation

26. Seitz A. Fighting Wave of Misinfo, YouTube Bans False Vaccine Claims. Medscape. 2021 Sep 29.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/959967

27. Boone R. Misinformation Leads to Animosity Toward Healthcare Workers. Medscape. 2021 Sep 29.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/959935

28. Hollingsworth H. Doctors Grow Increasingly Frustrated Over COVID-19 Denial. Medscape. 2021 Oct 4.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/960213?uac=397605ET&faf=1&sso=true&impID=3688711&src="https://sbcpa.orgWNL_dne5_211005_MSCPEDIT

29. Terry K. Most Americans Have Been Duped by COVID Misinformation: Survey. Medscape. 2021 Nov 9.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/962627

30. Webb RM, Kurtz L. Politics v. science: How President Trump's war on science impacted public health and environmental regulation. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2022;188(1):65-80. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2021.11.006. Epub 2022 Jan 27. PMID: 35168747; PMCID: PMC8793038

31. Lepkowsky CM. U.S. COVID-19 Policy: Politics Trump Science. Medical Research Archives. 2022;10(7).
https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i7.296

32. United States Department of Health and Human Services. COVID-19 Vaccines. Mar 13, 2024; https://www.hhs.gov/coronavirus/covid-19-vaccines/index.html#:~:text=Vaccinations%20in%20the%20United%20States%20began%20on%20December%2014%2C%202020.],

33. United States Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves first COVID-19 vaccine. Aug 23, 2021;
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-covid-19-vaccine#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20U.S.%20Food%20and,years%20of%20age%20and%20older.

34. Bautista H, Muñiz G, Gaytán C, Mendoza R, Parás V, Tinoco S, Yaah A, Hernández A, Gutiérrez S & Betancourt J. Impact of vaccination on infection or death from COVID-19 in individuals with laboratory-confirmed cases: Case-control study. PLoS One. 2023 Aug 3;18(8):e0265698. doi: 10.1371/journal .pone.0265698. PMID: 37535644; PMCID: PMC10399771.

35. Moreland A, Herlihy C, Tynan MA, et al. Timing of State and Territorial COVID-19 Stay-at-Home Orders and Changes in Population Movement — United States, March 1–May 31, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:1198–1203. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6935a2

36. Lepkowsky CM. U.S. COVID-19 Policy in 2023 and its Consequences. Medical Research Archives. 2023; 11(6).
https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v11i6.4022

37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC updates and shortens recommended isolation and quarantine period for general population. Media statement, December 27, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s1227-isolation-quarantine-guidance.html#:~:text=Stay%20home%20for%205%20days,others%20for%205%20additional%20days.

38. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services: End of the federal COVID-19 Public Health Emergency (PHE) declaration. May 5, 2023; https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?q=PHE%20terminated%20May%2011,%202023&start=0&rows=10&url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/end-of-phe.html

39. Grant K &McNamara D. It may be time to pay attention to COVID again. WebMD Health News. Aug 11, 2023;
https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/it-may-be-time-pay-attention-covid-again-2023a1000ipk?ecd=wnl_dne1_230814_MSCPEDIT_etid5747665&uac=397605ET&impID=5747665

40. Luisi N, Sullivan PS, Sanchez T, Bradley H, Fahimi M, Shioda K, Nelson KN, Lopman BA, Siegler AJ. Use of COVID Tests.gov At-Home Test Kits Among Adults in a National Household Probability Sample - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Apr 21; 72(16):445-449. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7216a6. PMID: 37079516; PMCID: PMC10121268

41. National Center for Health Statistics. U.S. Census Bureau, Household Pulse Survey, 2022– 2024. Long COVID. Generated interactively: from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/covid19/pulse/long-covid.htm

42. Rosenstrom E, Oruc BE, Hupert N, Ivy J, Keskinocak P, Mayorga ME, Swann JL. High-quality masks reduce COVID-19 infections and deaths in the US. medRxiv [Preprint]. 2021 Jan 28:2020.09.27.20199737.
doi: 10.1101/2020.09.27.20199737. PMID: 33532790; PMCID: PMC7852241.

43. Boulos L, Curran JA, Gallant A, Wong H, Johnson C, Delahunty-Pike A, Saxinger L, Chu D, Comeau J, Flynn T, Clegg J, Dye C. Effectiveness of face masks for reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2: a rapid systematic review. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2023 Oct 9;381(2257):20230133. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0133. Epub 2023 Aug 23. PMID: 37611625; PMCID: PMC10446908.

44. California Department of Public Health. Guidance for the use of face masks. March 3, 2023. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/COVID-19/guidance-for-face-coverings.aspx

45. Stobbe M. Vaccine data shows rates for latest COVID-19 booster is ‘abysmal’, only 7 percent of U.S. adults with shot. PBS News Hour: Health. Oct 27, 2023; https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/vaccine-data-shows-rates-for-latest-covid-19-booster-is-abysmal-only-7-percent-of-u-s-adults-with-shot

46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC streamlines COVID-19 guidance to help the public better protect themselves and understand their risk. Aug 11, 2022; https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/p0811-covid-guidance.html

47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing Spread of Respiratory Viruses When You’re Sick. 2024; https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/prevention/precautions-when-sick.html

48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 Activity Increases as Prevalence of JN.1 Variant Continues to Rise. Jan 5, 2024; https://www.cdc.gov/ncird/whats-new/JN.1-update-2024-01-05.html

49. Sah R, Rais MA, Mohanty A, Chopra H, Chandran D, Bin Emran T, Dhama K. Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant and its subvariants and lineages may lead to another COVID-19 wave in the world? -An overview of current evidence and counteracting strategies. Int J Surg Open. Jun 2023;55:100625. doi: 10.1016/j.ijso.2023. 100625. Epub 2023 May 18. PMID: 37255735; PMCID: PMC10192062

50. Ellis T. CDC Tracking New COVID Strain. WebMD Health News. Aug 21, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/995668?ecd=WNL_trdalrt_pos1_230821_etid5773838&uac=397605ET&impID=5773838

51. Callaway E. Why a highly mutated coronavirus variant has scientists on alert. Nature. Aug 21, 2023.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02656-9

52. Ramaiah A, Khubbar M, Akinyemi K, Bauer A, Carranza F, Weiner J, Bhattacharyya S, Payne D, Balakrishnan N. Genomic surveillance reveals the rapid expansion of the XBB lineage among circulating SARS-CoV-2 Omicron lineages in Southeastern Wisconsin, USA. Viruses. 2023 Sep 16;15(9):1940. doi: 10.3390/v15091940. PMID: 37766346; PMCID: PMC10535685.

53. World Health Organization. Update on the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineages. Aug 22, 2023.
https://www.paho.org/en/documents/update-emergence-sars-cov-2-omicron-sublineages-22-august-2023

54. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. Risk assessment summary for SARS CoV-2 sublineage BA.2.86. Aug 23, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/ncird/whats-new/covid-19-variant.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Frespiratory-viruses%2Fwhats-new%2Fcovid-19-variant.html

55. O’Mary L. Closely watched COVID variant detected in 10 US states. WebMD Health News. Sep 19, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/996592?ecd=wnl_dne1_230920_MSCPEDIT_etid5872024&uac=397605ET&impID=5872024

56. Moderna. Moderna clinical trial data confirm its updated COVID-19 vaccine generates strong immune response in humans against BA.2.86. Sep 6, 2023.
https://investors.modernatx.com/news/news-details/2023/Moderna-Clinical-Trial-Data-Confirm-Its-Updated-Covid-19-Vaccine-Generates-Strong-Immune-Response-in-Humans-Against-BA.2.86/default.aspx

57. Doheny K. New COVID variant JN.1 could disrupt holiday plans. WebMD Health News. Dec 7, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/new-covid-variant-jn-1-could-disrupt-holiday-plans-2023a1000uml?ecd=wnl_edit_tpal_etid6137947&uac=397605ET&impID=6137947

58. O’Mary L. COVID strain JN.1 is now a ‘variant of interest,’ WHO says. WebMD Health News. Dec 21, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/covid-strain-jn-1-now-variant-interest-who-says-2023a1000w73?ecd=WNL_trdalrt_pos1_231222_etid6186254&uac=397605ET&impID=6186254

59. Rosen A & Hartman M. What to know about JN.1, the latest Omicron variant. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Jan 9, 2024; https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2024/jn1-the-dominant-variant-in-the-covid-surge

60. Reuters Health Information. CDC Says JN.1 variant accounts for about 86% of COVID cases in US. January 22, 2024. https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/cdc-says-jn-1-variant-accounts-about-86-covid-cases-us-2024a10001n7?240129&src=FYE&ecd=WNL_recnlnew2_broad_US_perso_etid6275797&uac=397605ET&impID=6275797

61. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Letter to Michelle Olsen at Moderna, TX, Inc. 2022 June 17.
https://www.fda.gov/media/144636/download, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Janssen COVID-19 vaccine. 2022 May 5. https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/janssen-covid-19-vaccine

62. United States Department of Health and Human Services. COVID-19 vaccines. Mar 13, 2024; https://www.hhs.gov/coronavirus/covid-19-vaccines/index.html#:~:text=Vaccinations%20in%20the%20United%20States%20began%20on%20December%2014%2C%202020

63. United States Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves first COVID-19 vaccine. Aug 23, 2021;
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-covid-19-vaccine#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20U.S.%20Food%20and,years%20of%20age%20and%20older.

64. Feldstein LR, Britton A, Grant L, Wiegand R, Ruffin J, Babu TM,… &Naleway AL. Effectiveness of bivalent mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and adolescents aged 5 to 17 years. JAMA. 2024 Feb 6;331(5):408-416. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.27022. PMID: 38319331; PMCID: PMC10848053

65. McNamara D. Shortages, cost, and frustration: Quest for the new COVID shot. WebMD Health News. Sep 29, 2023; https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/996969?ecd=WNL_trdalrt_pos1_231003_etid5918821&uac=397605ET&impID=5918821#vp_1

66. Shelley A. New COVID vaccines force bivalents out. WebMD Health News. Sep 11, 2023; https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/996300?ecd=wnl_newsalrt_230911_MSCPEDIT_New_Covid_etid5843749&uac=397605ET&impID=5843749

67. Young KD. FDA panel backs new COVID booster focusing only on XBB variants. WedMD Health News. Jun 15, 2023; https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/993304?ecd=wnl_dne8_230616_MSCPEDIT_etid5535638&uac=397605ET&impID=5535638

68. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves first treatment for COVID-19. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-treatment-covid-19

69. Yasir M, Lankala CR, Kalyankar P, Ishak A, Mekhail M, Sestacovschi C, Kima E. An updated systematic review on Remdesivir's safety and efficacy in patients afflicted with COVID-19. Cureus. Aug 7, 2023;15(8):e43060. doi: 10.7759/cureus.43060. PMID: 37680394; PMCID: PMC10481368

70. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves first oral antiviral for treatment of COVID-19 in adults. May 25, 2023. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-oral-antiviral-treatment-covid-19-adults#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20U.S.%20Food%20and,19%2C%20including%20hospitalization%20or%20death.

71. National Institute of Health. Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid). February 29, 2024. https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapies/antivirals-including-antibody-products/ritonavir-boosted-nirmatrelvir--paxlovid-/

72. Katella K. 13 things to know about Paxlovid, the lates COVID-19 pill. Yale Medicine. Mar 25, 2024.
https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/13-things-to-know-paxlovid-covid-19

73. Deo R, Choudhary MC, Moser C, Ritz J, Daar ES, … Li JZ. Symptom and viral rebound in untreated SARS-CoV-2 infection. Ann Intern Med. Feb 21, 2023;176(3). https://doi.org/10.7326/M22-2381

74. Wang L, Berger NA, Davis PB, Kaelber DC, Volkow ND, Xu R. COVID-19 rebound after Paxlovid and Molnupiravir during January-June 2022. medRxiv [Preprint]. Jun 22:2022. 06.21.22276724.
doi: 10.1101/2022.06.21.22276724. PMID: 35794889; PMCID: PMC9258292

75. Ioannou GN, Berry K, Rajeevan N, Li Y, Mutalik P, … Bajema KL. Effectiveness of Nirmatrelvir–Ritonavir Against the Development of Post–COVID-19 Conditions Among U.S. Veterans: A Target Trial. Ann Int Med. Oct 31, 2023;176(11). https://doi.org/10.7326/M23-1394

76. Andrews HS, Herman JD & Gandhi T. Treatments for COVID-19. Annual Review of Medicine. 2024;75:145-157.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-052422-020316

77. Boscolo-Rizzo P, Hummel T, Spinato G, Angelo Vaira L, Menini A, Hopkins C, Tirelli G. Olfactory and gustatory function 3 years after mild COVID-19-A cohort psychophysical study. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. Jan 1, 2024;150(1):79-81. doi: 10.1001/jamaoto.2023.3603. PMID: 37943538; PMCID: PMC10636652

78. Mitchell MB, Workman AD, Rathi VK & Bhattacharyya N. Smell and taste loss associated with COVID-19 infection. The Laryngoscope. 2023;133: 2357-2361. https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.30802

79. Terzic CM, Medina-Inojosa BJ. Cardiovascular complications of coronavirus disease-2019. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2023 Aug;34(3):551-561. doi: 10.1016/j.pmr. 2023.03.003. Epub 2023 Mar 31. PMID: 37419531; PMCID: PMC10063539.

80. Eberhardt N, Noval MG, Kaur R, Amadori L, Gildea M, … Giannarelli C. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers pro-atherogenic inflammatory responses in human coronary vessels. Nat Cardiovasc Res. Sep 28, 2023;2:899–916. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44161-023-00336-5

81. Hanson AL, Mulè MP, Ruffieux H, Mescia F, Bergamaschi L, … Smith KGC. Iron dysregulation and inflammatory stress erythropoiesis associates with long-term outcome of COVID-19. Nat Immunol. 2024;25:471–482. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-024-01754-8

82. Kim J, Lee G, Jeong C, Yeom S, Nam K, Yun S & Park J. Risk of alopecia areata after COVID-19. JAMA Dermatol. 2024;160(2):232–235. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2023.5559

83. Nielsen NM, Spiliopoulos L, Hansen JV, MSc, PhD, Poul Videbech P, & Hviid A. SARS-CoV-2 infection and risk of postacute psychiatric and neurologic diagnoses: a nationwide Danish cohort study. Neurology. Mar 12, 2024;102(5). https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000208113

84. Harrison PJ, Taquet M. Neuropsychiatric disorders following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Brain. Jun 1, 2023;146(6):2241-2247. doi: 10.1093/brain/awad008. PMID: 36729559; PMCID: PMC10232232.

85. Braga J, Lepra M, Kish SJ, Rusjan PM, Nasser Z, …. Meyer JH. Neuroinflammation after COVID-19 with persistent depressive and cognitive symptoms. JAMA Psychiatry. 2023;80 (8):787–795. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.1321

86. Bolon B. Toxicologic Pathology Forum Opinion: Interpretation of Gliosis in the Brain and Spinal Cord Observed During Nonclinical Safety Studies. Toxicol Pathol. Jan 2023;51(1-2)68-76. doi: 10.1177/01926233231164557. Epub 2023 Apr 14. PMID: 37057409

87. University of Miami Health System. Reactive Gliosis and Necrosis. 2024. https://umiamihealth.org/en/sylvester-comprehensive-cancer-center/brain-tumor-initiative/reactive-gliosis-and-necrosis

88. Balint E, Feng E, Giles EC, Ritchie TM, Qian AS, … Ashkar AA. Bystander activated CD8+ T cells mediate neuropathology during viral infection via antigen-independent cytotoxicity. Nat Commun. Feb 5, 2024;15:896. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44667-0

89. Hampshire A, Azor A, Atchison C, Trender W, Hellyer PJ , Giunchiglia V, Husain M & Elliott P. Cognition and memory after Covid-19 in a large community sample. N Engl J Med. Feb 28, 2024;390(9):806-818. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2311330

90. Callard F., Perego E. How and why patients made Long Covid. Soc. Sci. Med. 2021;268:113426

91. Nabavi N. Long covid: How to define it and how to manage it. BMJ. 2020;370 doi: 10.1136/bmj.m34892. m3489

92. Thaweethai T, Jolley SE, Karlson EW, LevitanEB, Levy B, McComsey GA, … & Foulkes AS. Development of a definition of Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. JAMA. 2023;329(22):1934–1946.
doi:10.1001/jama.2023.8823

93. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Post-COVID conditions: Information for healthcare providers. Feb 6, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-care/post-covid-conditions.html?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email

94. Reese JT, Blau H, Casiraghi E, Bergquist T, Loomba JJ, Callahan TJ, … & Robinson PN. Generalisable long COVID subtypes: findings from the NIH N3C and RECOVER programmes. Lancet: eBioMedicine. Jan 2023;87(104413). https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(22)00595-3/fulltext

95. Cervia-Hasler C, Brüningk SC, Hoch T, Fan B, Muzio G, Thompson RC, Ceglarek L, Meledin R, Westermann P, [...], & Boyman O. Persistent complement dysregulation with signs of thromboinflammation in active Long Covid. Science. Ja 19, 2024;383(6680): eadg7942. DOI:10.1126/science.adg7942

96. Baig AM. Differential diagnosis and pathogenesis of the neurological signs and symptoms in COVID-19 and long-COVID syndrome. CNS Neurosci. Ther. Sep 19, 2022. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cns.13957

97. Wolff D, Drewitz KP, Ulrich A, Siegels D, Deckert S, Sprenger AA, … & Apfelbacher C. Allergic diseases as risk factors for Long-COVID symptoms: Systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Clin Exp Allergy. Nov 8, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.14391

98. Chung T, Morrow AK, Parker A, Mastalerz MH & Venkatean A. Long COVID: Long-term effects of COVID-19. Johns Hopkins Medicine: Health. Jun 14, 2002.
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/covid-long-haulers-long-term-effects-of-covid19

99. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Research on COVID-19 and diabetes sets the stage for care. Diabetes Discoveries & Practice Blog. Jun 28, 2023.
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/professionals/diabetes-discoveries-practice/research-on-covid-and-diabetes#:~:text=A%3A%20We%20have%20seen%20about,with%20controls%2C%20after%201%20year.

100. Alrajhi NN. Post-COVID-19 pulmonary fibrosis: An ongoing concern. Ann Thorac Med. 2023 Oct-Dec;18(4):173-181. doi: 10.4103/atm.atm_7_23. Epub 2023 Oct 17. PMID: 38058790; PMCID: PMC10697304

101. Fairweather D, Beetler DJ, Di Florio DN, Musigk N, Heidecker B & Cooper LT Jr. COVID-19, Myocarditis and Pericarditis. Circulation Research. May 11, 2023;132(10). https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.123.321878

102. Zahornacky O, Porubčin Š, Rovnakova A, Jarcuska P. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in adults associated with recent infection with COVID-19. Diagnostics (Basel). Mar 4, 2023; 13(5):983. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics13050983. PMID: 36900127; PMCID: PMC10000501

103. Spinelli MA, Jones BLH, Gandhi M. COVID-19 Outcomes and risk factors among people living with HIV. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2022 Oct;19(5):425-432.
doi: 10.1007/s11904-022-00618-w. Epub 2022 Aug 5. PMID: 35930187; PMCID: PMC9362624

104. Sher EK, Ćosović A, Džidić-Krivić A, Farhat EK, Pinjić E, Sher F. Covid-19 a triggering factor of autoimmune and multi-inflammatory diseases. Life Sci. Apr 15, 2023;319:121531. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121531. Epub 2023 Feb 27. PMID: 36858313; PMCID: PMC9969758

105. Guo M, Liu X, Chen X, Li Q. Insights into new-onset autoimmune diseases after COVID-19 vaccination. Autoimmun Rev. Jul 2023;22 (7):103340. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2023.103340. Epub 2023 Apr 17. PMID: 37075917; PMCID: PMC10108562

106. Chang R, Chen TY, Wang S, Hung Y, Chen H & Wei CJ. Risk of autoimmune diseases in patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet: eClinicalMedicine. Feb 2023;56(101783).
DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101783

107. Rizvi AA, Kathuria A, Al Mahmeed W, Al-Rasadi K, Al-Alawi K, Banach M, Banerjee Y, Ceriello A, Cesur M, Cosentino F, Galia M, Goh SY, Janez A, Kalra S, Kempler P, Lessan N, Lotufo P, Papanas N, Santos RD, Stoian AP, Toth PP, Viswanathan V, Rizzo M; Cardiometabolic Panel of International experts on Systemic COVID-19 (CAPISCO). Post-COVID syndrome, inflammation, and diabetes. J Diabetes Complications. Nov 2022;36(11): 108336. doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2022.108336. Epub 2022 Oct 6. PMID: 36228563; PMCID: PMC9534783

108. Calabrese C, Kirchner E, Calabrese LH. Long COVID and rheumatology: Clinical, diagnostic, and therapeutic implications. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. Dec 23, 2022;36 (4):101794. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2022.101794. Epub 2022 Nov 8. PMID: 36369208; PMCID: PMC9641578

109. Yadav S, Bonnes SL, Gilman EA, Mueller MR, Collins NM, Hurt RT, Ganesh R. Inflammatory Arthritis After COVID-19: A Case Series. Am J Case Rep. Jun 27, 2023;24: e939870. doi: 10.12659/AJCR.939870. PMID: 37368875; PMCID: PMC10311574

110. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Long COVID in adults: United State, 2022. 2022.
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db480.htm#section_1

111. Pollack B, von Saltza E, McCorkell L, Santos L, Hultman A, Cohen AK, Soares L. Female reproductive health impacts of Long COVID and associated illnesses including ME/CFS, POTS, and connective tissue disorders: a literature review. Front Rehabil Sci. Apr 28, 2023;28;4:1122673.
doi: 10.3389/fresc.2023.1122673. PMID: 37234076; PMCID: PMC10208411

112. Newson L, Lewis R, O'Hara M. Long Covid and menopause - the important role of hormones in Long Covid must be considered. Maturitas. Oct 2021;152:74. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2021.08.026. Epub 2021 Oct 18. PMCID: PMC8522980

113. Stewart S, Newson L, Briggs TA, Grammatopoulos D, Young L, Gill P. Long COVID risk - a signal to address sex hormones and women's health. Lancet Reg Health Eur. Dec 2021;11:100242.
doi: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100242. Epub 2021 Nov 2. PMID: 34746909; PMCID: PMC8561426

114. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nearly one in five American adults who have had COVID-19 still have “long covid.” June 22, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220622.htm

115. Hu Y, Liu Y, Zheng H, Liu L. Risk factors for long COVID in older adults. Biomedicines. 2023 Nov 8;11(11):3002. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines11113002. PMID: 38002002; PMCID: PMC10669899

116. Ellingjord-Dale M, Brunvoll SH & Søraas A. Prospective Memory Assessment before and after Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2024;390 (9):863-865. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc2311200

117. Cheetham NJ, Penfold R, Giunchiglia V, Bowyer V, Sudre CH, Canas LS, … & Claire J. Steves CJ. The effects of COVID-19 on cognitive performance in a community-based cohort: a COVID symptom study biobank prospective cohort study. Lancet eClin Med. Jul 21, 2023. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102086

118. Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM & Topol EJ. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21:133–146. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-022-00846-2

119. Li Jiang, Xuan Li, Jia Nie, Kun Tang, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta. A systematic review of persistent clinical features after SARS-CoV-2 in the pediatric population. Pediatrics. Aug 2023;152(2):e2022060351. DOI:10.1542/peds.2022-060351

120. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Household pulse study. April 18, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/covid19/pulse/long-covid.htm

121. Ford ND, Agedew A, Dalton AF, Singleton J, Perrine CG, Saydah S. Notes from the Field: Long COVID Prevalence Among Adults — United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024;73:135–136. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7306a4

122. Kaiser Family Foundation. Long COVID rates appear to be stabilizing, affecting about 1 in 10 adults who have had COVID. News release. Apr 9, 2024.
https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/press-release/long-covid-rates-appear-to-be-stabilizing-affecting-about-1-in-10-adults-who-have-had-covid/#:~:text=About%201%20in%2010%20adults%20with%20COVID%20have%20reported%20having,for%20Disease%20Control%20and%20Prevention

123. Taquet, M., Dercon, Q. & Harrison, P. J. Six-month sequelae of post-vaccination SARS-CoV-2 infection: a retrospective cohort study of 10,024 breakthrough infections. Brain Behav. Immun. Jul 2022. 103:154–162. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.04.013. Epub 2022 Apr 18. PMID: 35447302; PMCID: PMC9013695

124. Bowe B, Xie Y, Al-Aly Z. Acute and postacute sequelae associated with SARS-CoV-2 reinfection. Nat Med. Nov 2022;28(11): 2398-2405. doi: 10.1038/s41591-022-02051-3. Epub 2022 Nov 10. PMID: 36357676; PMCID: PMC9671810.

125. Wander PL, Baraff A, Fox A, Cho K, Maripuri M, Honerlaw JP, … Ioannou GN. Rates of ICD-10 Code U09.9 documentation and clinical characteristics of VA patients with Post–COVID-19 Condition. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(12):e2346783. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.46783

126. Center for Disease Prevention and Control. Health, United States 2020-2021: Geographic division or region. Jun 26,2023. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus/sources-definitions/geographic-region.htm

127. Blanchflower DG, Bryson A. Long COVID in the United States. PLoS One. 2023 Nov 2;18(11):e0292672. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0292672. PMID: 37917610; PMCID: PMC10621843

128. Dani M, Dirksen A, Taraborrelli P, Torocastro M, Panagopoulos D, Sutton R, Lim PB. Autonomic dysfunction in 'long COVID': rationale, physiology and management strategies. Clin Med (Lond). 2021 Jan;21(1): e63-e67. doi: 10.7861/clinmed.2020-0896. Epub 2020 Nov 26. PMID: 33243837; PMCID: PMC7850225

129. Wong A, Devason AS, Umana IC, Cox, TO, Dohnalová L, Litichevskiy L,…Levy M. Serotonin reduction in post-acute sequelae of viral infection. Cell. Oct 16, 2023. Open Access. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.09.013

130. Baillie K, Davies HE, Keat SBK, Ladell K, Miners KL, Jones SA, Mellou E, Toonen EJM, Price DA, Morgan BP, Zelek WM. Complement dysregulation is a prevalent and therapeutically amenable feature of long COVID. Med. 2024 Mar 8;5(3):239-253.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.medj.2024.01.011. Epub 2024 Feb 15. PMID: 38359836

131. Guarnieri JW, Dybas JM, Fazelinia H, Kim MS, Frere J, Zhang Y, & Wallace DC. Core mitochondrial genes are down-regulated during SARS-CoV-2 infection of rodent and human hosts. Sci. Transl. Med. Aug 9, 2023;15(708).DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abq1533

132. Lladós G & Mateu L. Pilot study suggests long COVID could be linked to the effects of SARS-CoV-2 on the vagus nerve. EurekaAlert! News release. Feb 11, 2022. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/943102

133. Aljuhani T, Coker-Bolt P, Katikaneni L, Ramakrishnan V, Brennan A, George MS, Badran BW, Jenkins D. Use of non-invasive transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation: neurodevelopmental and sensory follow-up. Front Hum Neurosci. Nov 9, 2023;17: 1297325. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1297325. PMID: 38021221; PMCID: PMC10666166

134. Tamariz L, Bast E, Klimas N, Palacio A. Low-dose Naltrexone Improves post-COVID-19 condition Symptoms. Clin Ther. 2024 Mar;46(3):e101-e106. doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera .2023.12.009. Epub 2024 Jan 23. PMID: 38267326

135. Cleveland Clinic. Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS). Sep 9, 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16560-postural-orthostatic-tachycardia-syndrome-pots

136. Desai AD, Boursiquot BC, Moore CJ, Gopinathannair R, Waase MP, Rubin GA, Wan EY. Autonomic dysfunction post-acute COVID-19 infection. HeartRhythm Case Rep. Mar 2022;8(3):143-146. doi: 10.1016/j.hrcr .2021.11.019. Epub 2021 Nov 27. PMID: 34868880; PMCID: PMC8626157

137. Patterson BK, Yogendra R, Guevara-Coto J, Mora-Rodriguez RA, Osgood E, Bream J, Parikh P, Kreimer M, Jeffers D, Rutland C, Kaplan G, Zgoda M. Case series: Maraviroc and pravastatin as a therapeutic option to treat long COVID/Post-acute sequelae of COVID (PASC). Front Med (Lausanne). Feb 8, 2023;10:1122529. doi: 10.3389/fmed. 2023.1122529. PMID: 36844201; PMCID: PMC9944830

138. Scheppke KA, Pepe PE, Jui J, Crowe RP, Scheppke EK, Klimas NG, Marty AM. Remission of severe forms of long COVID following monoclonal antibody (MCA) infusions: A report of signal index cases and call for targeted research. Am J Emerg Med. 2024 Jan;75:122-127.
doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2023.09.051. Epub 2023 Oct 4. PMID: 37944296

139. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 vaccinations in the United States. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-people-additional-dose-totalpop

140. New York Times. Track COVID-19 in the U.S. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/us/covid-cases.html

141. Katella K. Comparing the COVID-19 vaccines: How are they different? Yale Medicine. 2022 June 20.
https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/covid-19-vaccine-comparison

142. Ellis R. COVID vaccines’ protection dropped sharply over 6 months: Study. WebMD News Brief. 2021 Nov 5.
https://www.webmd.com/vaccines/covid-19-vaccine/news/20211105/covid-vaccine-protection-drops-study

143. Ferdinands JM, Rao S, Dixon BE, et al. Waning 2-dose and 3-dose effectiveness of mRNA vaccines against COVID-19–associated emergency department and urgent care encounters and hospitalizations among adults during periods of Delta and Omicron variant predominance — VISION Network, 10 States, August 2021–January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:255–263. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7107e2external icon

144. Sun Y, Monnat SM. Rural-urban and within-rural differences in COVID-19 vaccination rates. J Rural Health. 2021 Sep 23:10.1111/jrh.12625. doi: 10.1111/jrh.12625

145. Germani F, Biller-Andorno N. The anti-vaccination infodemic on social media: A behavioral analysis. PLoS One. 2021 Mar 3;16(3):e0247642. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone .0247642. PMID: 33657152; PMCID: PMC7928468

146. Hotez PJ. The Deadly Rise of Anti-Science: A Scientitst’s Warning. Johns Hopkins University Press; 2023

147. Hochwald L. The rise of anti-science rhetoric is a ‘lethal force’: A conversation with Peter J. Hotez, MD, PhD, about his new book, The Deadly Rise of Anti-Science: A Scientist’s Warning. Medscape. Sep 19, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/996583?ecd=WNL_mdpls_230919_mscpedit_psych_etid5869550&uac=397605ET&spon=12&impID=5869550

148. Bagshaw SM, Abbott A, Beesoon S. et al. A population-based assessment of avoidable hospitalizations and resource use of non-vaccinated patients with COVID-19. Can J Public Health. 2023;114.
https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-023-00777-2

149. Kharbanda EO, Haapala J, Lipkind HS, et al. COVID-19 Booster Vaccination in Early Pregnancy and Surveillance for Spontaneous Abortion. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(5): e2314350. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.14350

150. Goddard K, Donahue JG, Lewis N, Hanson KE, MPH; Weintraub ES, Fireman B & Klein NP. Safety of COVID-19 mRNA vaccination among young children in the vaccine safety datalink. Pediatrics. Jul 2023;152(1): e2023061894. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-061894

151. Allcott H, Boxell L, Conway J, Gentzkow M, Thaler M, Yang D. Polarization and public health: partisan differences in social distancing during the coronavirus pandemic. J Public Econ. 2020;191:104254.
doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104254

152. Grossman G, Kim S, Rexer JM, Thirumurthy H. Political partisanship influences behavioral responses to governors’ recommendations for COVID-19 prevention in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(39):24144-24153. doi:10.1073/pnas.2007835117

153. Callaghan T, Moghtaderi A, Lueck JA, et al. Correlates and disparities of intention to vaccinate against COVID-19. Soc Sci Med. 2021;272:113638. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113638

154. Cowan SK, Mark N, Reich JA. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is the new terrain for political division among Americans. Socius. Jun 17, 2021. doi:10.1177/23780231211023657

155. Pink SL, Chu J, Druckman JN, Rand DG &, Willer R. Elite party cues increase vaccination intentions among Republicans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021;118(32):e2106559118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2106559118

156. Wallace J, Goldsmith-Pinkham P, Schwartz JL. Excess Death Rates for Republican and Democratic Registered Voters in Florida and Ohio During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183(9):916–923. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.1154

157. Sehgal NJ, Yue D, Pope E, Wang RH &, Roby DH. The association between COVID-19 mortality and the county-level partisan divide in the United States: study examines the association between COVID-19 mortality and county-level political party affiliation. Health Aff (Millwood). 2022;41(6):853-863. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2022.00085

158. Leonhardt D. The partisan gap in US Covid deaths is still growing, but more slowly. New York Times. Feb 18, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/18/briefing/the-morning-the-partisan-gap-in-us-covid-deaths-is-still-growing-but-more-slowly.html

159. Grant K &McNamara D. It may be time to pay attention to COVID again. WebMD Health News. Aug 11, 2023;
https://www.medscape.com/s/viewarticle/it-may-be-time-pay-attention-covid-again-2023a1000ipk?ecd=wnl_._230814_MSCPEDIT_etid5747665&uac=397605ET&impID=5747665

160. Luisi N, Sullivan PS, Sanchez T, Bradley H, Fahimi M, Shioda K, Nelson KN, Lopman BA, Siegler AJ. Use of COVID Tests.gov at-home test kits among adults in a national household probability sample - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Apr 21;72(16):445-449.
doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7216a6. PMID: 37079516; PMCID: PMC10121268

161. Colarossi J. Is COVID-19 still a pandemic? The Brink, Boston University. Mar 4, 2024; https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/is-covid-19-still-a-pandemic/#:~:text=And%20some%2C%20like%20smallpox%2C%20continue,and%20it's%20not%20fading%20away

162. Shuldiner J, Green ME, Kiran T, Khan S, Frymire E, R, Moineddin R, … & Ivers N. Characteristics of primary care practices by proportion of patients unvaccinated against SARS-CoV-2: a cross-sectional cohort study. CMAJ. April 08, 2024;196(13): E432-E440; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.230816

163. Tyson A & Pasquini G. How Americans view the Coronavirus, COVID-19 vaccines amid declining levels of concern: Continued decline in share of U.S. adults with up-to-date vaccination. Pew Research Center. March 7, 2024; https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2024/03/07/how-americans-view-the-coronavirus-covid-19-vaccines-amid-declining-levels-of-concern/

164. Rappaport L. Long COVID Has caused thousands of US deaths: New CDC data. Medscape. Jan 3, 2024.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/long-covid-has-caused-thousands-us-deaths-new-cdc-data-2024a100006l?ecd=WNL_trdalrt_pos1_240103_etid6217493&uac=397605ET&impID=6217493]

165. Huang G, Guo F, Liu L, Taksa L, Cheng Z, Tani M, Zimmermann KF, Franklin M, Silva SSM. Changing impact of COVID-19 on life expectancy 2019-2023 and its decomposition: Findings from 27 countries. SSM Popul Health. Dec 3, 2023;25:101568. doi: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101568

166. Andrasfay T, Goldman N. Reductions in US life expectancy during the COVID-19 pandemic by race and ethnicity: Is 2021 a repetition of 2020? medRxiv [Preprint]. 2022 Jul 19:2021.10.17.21265117. doi: 10.1101/ 2021.10.17.21265117. Update in: PLoS One. 2022 Aug 31;17(8):e0272973. PMID: 34704099; PMCID: PMC8547531.

167. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Respiratory Virus Guidance Update

168. FAQs. Updated Mar 25, 2024.
https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/guidance/faq.html#:~:text=Updated%20Guidance%3A%20The%20updated%20Respiratory,using%20fever%2Dreducing%20medication)

169. Goodman B. CDC drops 5-day isolation guidance for Covid-19, moving away from key strategy to quell infections. CNN. Mar 1, 2024. https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/01/health/cdc-covid-isolation-recommendations/index.html

170. Topol E. Covid, 4 years on: A quick update on some important new data. Mar 13, 2024. https://erictopol.substack.com/p/covid-4-years-on

171. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Background for CDC’s Updated Respiratory Virus Guidance. Mar 5 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/background/index.html

172. Davis KW. Should your medical clinic reinstate mask requirements? Medscape Medical News. Jan 23, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/should-your-medical-clinic-reinstate-mask-requirements-2024a10001ng?240129&src=FYE&ecd=WNL_recnlnew1_broad_US_perso_etid6275797&uac=397605ET&impID=6275797

173. Waldman D. Virus and booster apathy could be fueling long COVID. Medscape. Feb 14, 2024.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/virus-and-booster-apathy-could-be-fueling-long-covid-2024a100034c?ecd=wnl_dne1_240216_MSCPEDIT_etid6315093&uac=397605ET&impID=6315093

174. Worldometer. COVID-19 Deaths: United States. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/us/

175. Gramlich J. What the data says about gun deaths in the U.S. Pew Research Center. Apr 6, 2023; https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/26/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/

176. Ziyad A & Topol E. Solving the puzzle of Long Covid. Science. 22 Feb 2024; 383(6685): 830-832. DOI: 10.1126/science.adl0867

177. Hartmann-Boyce J, Highton P, Rees K, Onakpoya I, Suklan J, …Khunti K. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated disruptions in health-care provision on clinical outcomes in people with diabetes: a systematic review. The Lancet: Diabetes and Endocrinology. Feb 2024;12(2):132-148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00351-0

178. Heer A, Ruan Y, Boyne DJ, Jarada TN, Heng D, … Brenner DR. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer diagnoses, stage and survival in Alberta. CMAJ. Jun 12, 2023;195(23) E804-E812;
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.221512

179. Wells CR, Galvani AP. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer incidence and mortality. Lancet Public Health. Jun 2022;7(6):e490-e491. doi: 10.1016/S2468-2667(22)00111-6. PMID: 35660207; PMCID: PMC9159732

180. Dinmohamed AG, Visser O, Verhoeven RHA, Louwman MWJ, van Nederveen FH, Willems SM, Merkx MAW, Lemmens VEPP, Nagtegaal ID, Siesling S. Fewer cancer diagnoses during the COVID-19 epidemic in the Netherlands. Lancet Oncol. Jun 2020;21(6):750-751. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(20)30265-5. Epub 2020 Apr 30. Erratum in: Lancet Oncol. 2020 May 4;: PMID: 32359403; PMCID: PMC7252180

181. Eskander A, Li Q, Yu J, Hallet J, Coburn NG, Dare A, Chan KK, Singh S, Parmar A, Earle CC, Lapointe-Shaw L. Incident cancer detection during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Feb 1, 2022;(3):276-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6004/jnccn.2021.7114

182. Alhouri A, Abu Shokor M, Marwa K, Sharabi A, Mohammad Nazir Arrouk D, Al Houri FN, Al Houri H. COVID-19 and its impact on healthcare workers: Understanding stigma, stress, and quality of life. Cureus.. Apr 19, 2023;15(4):e37846. doi: 10.7759/cureus. 37846. PMID: 37214008; PMCID: PMC10198658

183. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health workers face a mental health crisis. Vital Signs. Oct 24, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/health-worker-mental-health/index.html

184. Chhablani N, Choudhari SG. Behind the Frontline: A Review on the Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Healthcare Workers. Cureus. Sep 20, 2022;14(9): e29349. doi:10.7759/ cureus.29349

185. Galarneau, JM, Labrèche F, Durand-Moreau Q, Ruzycki S, Adisesh A, …Cherry N. Excess risk of COVID-19 infection and mental distress in healthcare workers during successive pandemic waves: Analysis of matched cohorts of healthcare workers and community referents in Alberta, Canada. Can J Public Health. 2024.
https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-023-00848-4

186. Benfante A, Di Tella M, Romeo A & Castelli L. Traumatic stress in healthcare workers during COVID-19 Pandemic: A review of the immediate impact. Front. Psychol. October 22, 2020;11.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.569935

187. Allan SM, Bealey R, Birch J, Cushing T, Parke S, Sergi G,…& Meiser-Stedman R. The prevalence of common and stress-related mental health disorders in healthcare workers based in pandemic-affected hospitals: a rapid systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 2020;11:1, 1810903, DOI: 10.1080/2000819 8.2020.1810903

188. Bohlken J, Schömig F, Lemke MR, Pumberger M, Riedel-Heller SG. [COVID-19 Pandemic: Stress Experience of Healthcare Workers - A Short Current Review]. Psychiatrische Praxis. May 2020;47(4):190-197. DOI: 10.1055/a-1159-5551. PMID: 32340048; PMCID: PMC7295275

189. Rink LC, Oyesanya TO, Adair KC, Humphreys JC, Silva SG, Sexton JB. Stressors Among Healthcare Workers: A Summative Content Analysis. Glob Qual Nurs Res. 2023 Mar 30;10:23333936231161127. doi: 10.1177/ 23333936231161127. PMID: 37020708; PMCID: PMC10068501

190. Bradley M & Chahar P. Burnout of healthcare providers during COVID-19. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. July 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.87a.ccc051

191. Burrowes SAB, Casey SM, Pierre-Josep Nh, Talbot SG, Hall T, Christian-Brathwaite N, … & Perkins RB.COVID-19 pandemic impacts on mental health, burnout, and longevity in the workplace among healthcare workers: A mixed methods study. Journal of Interprofessional Education & Practice. 2023;32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xjep.2023.100661

192. Ho, S. For some MDs, long COVID burnout is a new reality.192- Medical News. Apr 5, 2024.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/some-mds-long-covid-burnout-new-reality-2024a10006hq

193. McKenna J. Medscape cardiologist burnout & depression report 2024: 'We have much work to do.’ Medscape. Mar 29, 2024. https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2024-burnout-cardiologist-6016959

194. McKenna J. Infographic: Hospitalist lifestyle burnout causes and cures. Medscape.
Jun 24, 2022. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/973450

195. Nelson J. Medscape Hospitalist Lifestyle, Happiness & Burnout Report 2022. Medscape. Jun 24, 2022.
https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2022-lifestyle-hospitalist-6015369

196. Johnson K. Canadian Medical Association finds high rates of burnout. Medscape: Medical News. Apr 04, 2022. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/971537

197. Larkin M. Interventional cardiologists unhappy, burned out globally. Medscape: Medical News. Jun 19, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/993394

198. Koval ML. Medscape pulmonologist lifestyle, happiness & burnout report 2023: Contentment amid stress. Feb 24, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2023-lifestyle-pulmonologist-6016092

199. Koval ML. Medscape anesthesiologist lifestyle, happiness & burnout report 2023: Contentment amid stress. Feb 24, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2023-lifestyle-anesthesiologist-6016070

200. Lehmann C. More physicians are experiencing burnout and depression. Medscape. Feb 01, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/987748

201. Kane L. 'I Cry but No One Cares': Physician Burnout & Depression Report 2023. Medscape. Jan 27, 2023.
https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2023-lifestyle-burnout-6016058

202. [Winsborough H. Taking control of work pressures: Medscape physician assistant burnout report 2023. Medscape. Oct 6, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/slideshow/2023-pa-burnout-report-6016718

203. McKenna J. Infographic: How nurses' mental health is holding up. Aug 24, 2023. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/995654

204. Ortega MV, Hidrue MK, Lehrhoff SR, Ellis DB, Sisodia RC, Curry WT, del Carmen MG & Wasfy JH. Patterns in physician burnout in a stable-linked cohort. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(10):e2336745. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.36745

205. Hoff T, Lee DR. Burnout and physician gender: What do we know? Med Care. Aug 1, 2021;59(8):711-720. doi: 10.1097/MLR.00000 00000001584. PMID: 34081678

206. Dillon, E.C., Stults, C.D., Deng, S. et al. Women, younger clinicians’, and caregivers’ experiences of burnout and well-being during COVID-19 in a US healthcare system. J GEN INTERN MED 37, 145–153 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-021-07134-4

207. Brooks M. High rates of med student burnout during COVID. Medscape Medical News: Conference News: APA 2022. Jun 01, 2022. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/974912

208. Ryus CR, Samuels EA, Wong AH, Hill KA, Huot S, Boatright D. Burnout and perception of medical school learning environments among gay, lesbian, and bisexual medical students. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(4):e229596. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.9596

209. Bykov KV, Zrazhevskaya IA, Topka EO, Peshkin VN, Dobrovolsky AP, Isaev RN & Orlov AM. Prevalence of burnout among psychiatrists: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2022;308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.005

210. Gunja MZ, Gumas ED, Williams II RD, DotyMM, Shah A & Fields K. Stressed out and burned out: the global primary care crisis. Nov 17, 2022. The Commonwealth Fund: Improving health care quality.
https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-briefs/2022/nov/stressed-out-burned-out-2022-international-survey-primary-care-physicians

211. Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. Office of Health Policy. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the hospital and outpatient clinician workforce. May, 2022 ISSUE BRIEF 1 HP-2022-13.
https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/9cc72124abd9ea25d58a22c7692dccb6/aspe-covid-workforce-report.pdf

212. Saunchegrow J. Healthcare Worker Shortage in 2024. April 5, 2024. https://www.hrforhealth.com/blog/healthcare-worker-shortage

213. Shen K, Eddelbuettel JC, Eisenberg MD. Job flows into and out of health care before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Health Forum. 2024;5(1):e234964. doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2023.4964

214. Sinsky CA, Brown RL, Stillman MJ & Linzer M. COVID-related stress and work intentions in a sample of US health care workers. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes. Dec 2021;5(6):1165073. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2021.08.007

215. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Current Priorities of the U.S. Surgeon General: Health worker burnout. May 23, 2022. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/priorities/health-worker-burnout/index.html

216. United States Congress. (2010). H.R.3590 - Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 111th Congress (2009-2010). https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/3590 United States Congress. (2011). S.365 - Budget Control Act of 2011 112th Congress 2011-2012). https://www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/senate-bill/365/text

217. United States Government Public Information. (2022b). PUBLIC LAW 114–10—APR. 16, 2015: Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015. www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ10/PLAW-114publ10.pdf

218. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Chart Book: Tracking the Recovery From the Pandemic Recession. Apr 4, 2024. https://www.cbpp.org/research/economy/tracking-the-recovery-from-the-pandemic-recession#:~:text=Real%20gross%20domestic%20product%20(GDP,part%20of%20the%20Great%20Recession.

219. Hlávka J & RoseA. COVID-19’s total cost to the U.S. Economy Will reach $14 trillion by end of 2023. USC Schaeffer Center for Health Policy & Economics. May 16, 2023. https://healthpolicy.usc.edu/article/covid-19s-total-cost-to-the-economy-in-us-will-reach-14-trillion-by-end-of-2023-new-research/

220. Pike J, Kompaniyets L, Lindley MC, Saydah S, Miller G. Direct Medical Costs Associated With Post–COVID-19 Conditions Among Privately Insured Children and Adults. Prev Chronic Dis. 2023;20:220292. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd20.220292

221. Javanmardian M, Smith A, Shellanbarger D. COVID-19’s economic impact for health systems. MarshMcLennan. Jun 2020. https://www.marshmclennan.com/insights/publications/2020/june/covid-19-s-economic-impact-for-health-systems.html

222. JHEOR Post. Economic effects of long COVID even larger than we thought. Journal of Health Economics and Outcomes Research. Dec 13, 2022. https://jheor.org/post/1746-economic-effects-of-long-covid-even-larger-than-we-thought

223. Wong LW, Chong YS, Lin W, Kisiswa L, Sim E, Ibáñez CF, Sajikumar S. Age-related changes in hippocampal-dependent synaptic plasticity and memory mediated by p75 neurotrophin receptor. Aging Cell. Jan 15, 2021;20(2):e13305. doi: 10.1111/acel.13305

224. Ridderinkhof KR, Krugers HJ. Horizons in Human Aging Neuroscience: From Normal Neural Aging to Mental (Fr)Agility. Front Hum Neurosci. Jun 29, 2022;16:815759. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.815759

225. Marzola P, Melzer T, Pavesi E, Gil-Mohapel J & Brocardo PS. Exploring the role of neuroplasticity in development, aging, and neurodegeneration. Brain Sci. 2023;13(12):1610; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13121610

226. Magee JC, Grienberger C. Synaptic plasticity forms and functions. Annu Rev Neurosci. Jul 8, 2020;43:95-117. doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-090919-022842

227. Debanne D, Inglebert Y. Spike timing-dependent plasticity and memory. Curr Opin Neurobiol. Jun 2023;80:102707. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2023.102707

228. Tononi G, Cirelli C. Sleep and the price of plasticity: from synaptic and cellular homeostasis to memory consolidation and integration. Neuron. Jan 8, 2014;81(1):12-34. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.12.025

229. Schlaug G. Musicians and music making as a model for the study of brain plasticity. Prog Brain Res. 2015;217:37-55. doi: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.020

230. Ben-Soussan TD, Berkovich-Ohana A, Piervincenzi C, Glicksohn J, Carducci F. Embodied cognitive flexibility and neuroplasticity following Quadrato Motor Training. Front Psychol. Jul 22, 2015;6:1021. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01021

231. Guntupalli S, Park P, Han DH, Zhang L, Yong XLH, Ringuet M, Blackmore DG, Jhaveri DJ, Koentgen F, Widagdo J, Kaang BK, Anggono V. Ubiquitination of the GluA1 subunit of AMPA receptors is required for synaptic plasticity, memory, and cognitive flexibility. J Neurosci. 2023 Jul 26;43(30): 5448-5457. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1542-22.2023

232. Cristofori I, Cohen-Zimerman S, Grafman J. Executive functions. Handb Clin Neurol. 2019;163:197-219. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-804281-6.00011-2

233. Jones DT, Graff-Radford J. Executive dysfunction and the prefrontal cortex. Continuum (Minneap Minn). Dec 1, 2021;27 (6):1586-1601. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000001009

234. Diamond A. Executive functions. Handb Clin Neurol. 2020;173:225-240.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-64150-2.00020-4

235. Uddin LQ. Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: neural mechanisms and clinical considerations. Nat Rev Neurosci. Mar 2021;22 (3):167-179. doi: 10.1038/s41583-021-00428-w. pub 2021 Feb 3. PMID: 33536614; PMCID: PMC7856857

236. Santangelo G, Raimo S, Barone P. The relationship between impulse control disorders and cognitive dysfunctions in Parkinson's Disease: A meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. Jun 2017;77:129-147.
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.018

237. Luciana M, Collins PF. Neuroplasticity, the prefrontal cortex, and psychopathology-related deviations in cognitive control. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. May 9, 2022;18:443-469. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-111203

238. Newport F. Update: Partisan gaps expand most on government power, climate. Gallup: Politics. Aug 7, 2023. https://news.gallup.com/poll/509129/update-partisan-gaps-expand-government-power-climate.aspx

239. Kleinfeld R. Polarization, democracy, and political violence in the United States: What the research says. Carnegie Foundation for International Peace. Sep 5, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/09/05/polarization-democracy-and-political-violence-in-united-states-what-research-says-pub-90457

240. Siripurapu A & Berman N. The Contentious U.S.-China trade relationship. Council on Foreign Relations. Sep 26, 2023. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/contentious-us-china-trade-relationship

241. Liu J. Apple deletes WhatsApp, Threads from China app store on orders from Beijing. CNN: Business. Apr 19, 2024. https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/19/tech/china-apple-whatspp-threads-removal-hnk-intl/index.html

242. Douglas J & Leong C. China hits U.S. with levy on chemical as trade tensions rise. Wall Street Journal. Apr 19, 2024. https://www.wsj.com/world/china/china-moves-to-raise-costs-of-imports-of-key-chemical-from-u-s-7d33196d

244. Cook E. Russia issues furious warning after Ukraine aid bill. Newsweek. Apr 21, 2024. https://www.newsweek.com/russia-reacts-us-military-aid-ukraine-dmitry-peskov-medvedev-maria-zakharova-1892547