Governing COVID-19: The Complex Relationship between Government Type and Police Enforcement Intensity: A Scoping Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic is one of the most significant challenges to global health and economic and social aspects. The COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented and unforeseen challenges to public health systems in the early 21st century and created a set of challenges for police departments worldwide. Countries with varied political approaches utilized the police in diverse ways to control the pandemic.
Methods: We conducted a scoping review to map the existing literature to respound to this question that “how does government type influenced the deployment of police during Covid-19 pandemic”? We searched electronic databases such as PubMed and Scopus. We included studies that were conducted in independent countries with different types of governance indicated by democracy score in Economist Intelligence Unit and published data on their police deployment in controlling COVID-19. We identified papers published 2020-2022, from which we selected 24 publications about 21 countries that met our inclusion criteria. We used a four-zone model of Governance Policing Types to plot the countries based on their government type and the extent of police deployment.
Results: Based on this model we present and synthesise results in accordance with the type of governance and the police deployment in controlling COVID-19. This model demonstrates a discernible relationship between government type and the degree of police involvement in managing epidemiological crises. Research findings suggest that in pandemic emergencies, the type of governance and effective response of the police ensure public safety and individual rights. We found a complex relationship among government type, police enforcement, and COVID-19 control. Our review identifies possible ideological and security-related biases impacting the representation of COVID-19 police responses in the analyzed studies.
Conclusion: Quality of governance and police involvement are essential in managing pandemics. Democratic countries generally have better decision-making, and have higher resilience. Authoritarian countries were able to make decisions more quickly. Countries that combined both quality and speed of decision-making achieved outstanding results. A balanced approach in maintaining public health and individual rights is needed. Community-oriented policing could be a solution. More research is needed to understand the long-term effects of the police performance during the COVID-19 era.
Keywords:
Government Type, Libertarianism, Authoritarianism, Democracy Score, COVID-19, Police, Freedom, Public Health
Article Details
How to Cite
BOHLOLI, Hamid; RABBANIKHAH, Fahimeh; SHOKRI, Azad.
Governing COVID-19: The Complex Relationship between Government Type and Police Enforcement Intensity: A Scoping Review.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 9, sep. 2024.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/5562>. Date accessed: 22 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i9.5562.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
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3. Thompson MR. Brute force governance: public approval despite policy failure during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs. 2022;41(3):399-421.
4. Yoo KJ, Kwon S, Choi Y, Bishai DM. Systematic assessment of South Korea’s capabilities to control COVID-19. Health Policy. 2021;125(5):568-576.
5. Kuiper ME, de Bruijn AL, Reinders Folmer C, et al. The intelligent lockdown: Compliance with COVID-19 mitigation measures in the Netherlands. Amsterdam Law School Research Paper. 2020;(2020-20)
6. Frey CB, Chen C, Presidente G. Democracy, culture, and contagion: Political regimes and countries responsiveness to Covid-19. Covid Economics. 2020;(18)
7. Unit EI. Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine. Retrieved online from EIU: https://pages eiu com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report pdf. 2022;
8. Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, et al. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Annals of internal medicine. 2018;169(7):467-473.
9. Arksey H, O'Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International journal of social research methodology. 2005;8(1):19-32.
10. Crooks VA, Kingsbury P, Snyder J, Johnston R. What is known about the patient's experience of medical tourism? A scoping review. BMC health services research. 2010;10(1):1-12.
11. Ng JY, Cobey KD, Ahmed S, et al. Recommendations and guidelines for creating scholarly biomedical journals: A scoping review. Plos one. 2023;18(3):e0282168.
12. Kingsbury I. Demystifying goliath: An examination of the political compass of education reform. Journal of School Choice. 2022;16(2):258-274.
13. Lester JC. The political compass and why libertarianism is not right-wing. Journal of social philosophy. 1996;27(2):176-86.
14. World Population Review. Democracy Countries 2023 Accessed 1 October 2023, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/democracy-countries
15. World Population Review. Dictatorship Countries 2023. 2023. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/dictatorship-countries
16. Corpuz JCG. ‘Pandemic within a pandemic’: a call to end police brutality. Journal of Public Health. 2022;44(2):e344-e345.
17. Grace S. Policing social distancing: gaining and maintaining compliance in the age of coronavirus. Policing: a journal of policy and practice. 2020;14(4):1034-1053.
18. Deckert A, Long NJ, Aikman PJ, et al. ‘Safer communities… together’? Plural policing and COVID-19 public health interventions in Aotearoa New Zealand. Policing and society. 2021;31(5):621-637.
19. Boon-Kuo L, Brodie A, Keene-McCann J, Sentas V, Weber L. Policing biosecurity: Police enforcement of special measures in New South Wales and Victoria during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current issues in criminal justice. 2021;33(1):76-88.
20. Chairil T. Indonesian government’s COVID-19 measures, January–May 2020: Late response and public health securitization. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik. 2020;24(2):128-152.
21. Olagnier D, Mogensen TH. The Covid-19 pandemic in Denmark: Big lessons from a small country. Cytokine & growth factor reviews. 2020;53:10-12.
22. Lindström M. The COVID-19 pandemic and the Swedish strategy: Epidemiology and postmodernism. SSM-population Health. 2020;11:100643.
23. Leal WE, Piquero AR, Piquero NL. Policing a pandemic: investigating San Antonio’s response to COVID-19’s new crime of public health violations. Police Practice and Research. 2022;23(6):739-756.
24. Lum C, Maupin C, Stoltz M. The supply and demand shifts in policing at the start of the pandemic: A national multi-wave survey of the impacts of COVID-19 on American law enforcement. Police Quarterly. 2023;26(4):495-519.
25. Kumar TV. Role of police in preventing the spread of COVID-19 through social distancing, quarantine and lockdown: An evidence-based comparison of outcomes across two districts. International Journal of Police Science & Management. 2021;23(2):196-207.
26. Msemburi W, Karlinsky A, Knutson V, Aleshin-Guendel S, Chatterji S, Wakefield J. The WHO estimates of excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature. 2023;613(7942):130-137.
27. Anand A, Sandefur J, Subramanian A. Three new estimates of India’s all-cause excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2021;
28. Parker M, Baluku M, Ozunga BE, et al. Epidemics and the Military: Responding to COVID-19 in Uganda. Social Science & Medicine. 2022;314:115482.
29. Jiang F, Xie C. Roles of Chinese police amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice. 2020;14(4):1127-1137.
30. Gao J, Zhang P. China's Public Health Policies in Response to COVID-19: From an ‘Authoritarian. Perspective. 2021;9:1-11.
31. Benedyczak J. Surveillance and Control: Russia during the COVID-19 Pandemic. 2020;
32. Luong HT, Jardine M, Thomson N. Mobilizing the police from the top down as public health partners in combatting COVID-19: A perspective from Vietnam. Journal of community safety and well-being. 2020;5(2):57-59.
33. AlQutob R, Moonesar IA, Tarawneh MR, Al Nsour M, Khader Y. Public health strategies for the gradual lifting of the public sector lockdown in Jordan and the United Arab Emirates during the COVID-19 crisis. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance. 2020;6(3):e20478.
34. Turgutalp ME. EGYPT: LEGACIES OF THE MODERN STATE AND THE COVID-19. The Unprecedented Impacts of COVID-19 and Global Responses. 2021:229.
35. Waseem Z. Policing COVID-19 through procedural informality in Pakistan. Policing and society. 2021;31(5):583-600.
36. Banik A, Nag T, Chowdhury SR, Chatterjee R. Why do COVID-19 fatality rates differ across countries? An explorative cross-country study based on select indicators. Global Business Review. 2020;21(3):607-625.
37. Keskin S, Ergor G. Excess Mortality Resulting from COVID-19 in Turkey during 2020-2021: Regional and Time-Based Analysis. medRxiv. 2023:2023.05. 04.23289498.
38. Bohloli H, Jamshidi HR, Abedini A, Ebraze A, Rabbani Khah F. Modeling Effective Interventions in Corona Virus (SARS-CoV-2) Management and Control in iran: A Futuristic Approach. Iranian Journal of Public Policy. 2021;7(3):9-35.
39. Behlolli H. National COVID-19 Command Center. Newspaper Shargh. Accessed 2023 04 October, 2023 04 October. https://www.magiran.com/article/4025776
40. Ghafari M, Kadivar A, Katzourakis A. Excess deaths associated with the Iranian COVID-19 epidemic: A province-level analysis. International journal of infectious diseases. 2021;107:101-115.
41. Ahmadi Gohari M, Chegeni M, Haghdoost AA, et al. Excess deaths during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran. Infectious Diseases. 2022;54(12):909-917.
42. Safavi-Naini SAA, Farsi Y, Alali WQ, Solhpour A, Pourhoseingholi MA. Excess all-cause mortality and COVID-19 reported fatality in Iran (April 2013–September 2021): age and sex disaggregated time series analysis. BMC Research Notes. 2022;15(1):1-7.
43. Shokri A, Mahmoodi H, Piroozi B, et al. An assessment of the relationship between national rates of Covid‐19 incidence and mortality as reported to an international comparison database: An ecological study. Health Science Reports. 2023;6(5):e1306.
44. Chaibakhsh S, Pourhoseingholi A, Vahedi M. Global incidence and mortality rate of COVID-19; special focus on Iran, Italy and China. Archives of Iranian medicine. 2020;23(7):455-461.
45. Moradi G, Piroozi B, Mohamadi-Bolbanabad A, Safari H, Shokri A, Rahimi R. Can judgments according to case fatality rate be correct all the time during epidemics? Estimated cases based on CFR in different scenarios and some lessons from early case fatality rate of coronavirus disease 2019 in Iran. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran. 2020;34:26.
46. Beaney T, Clarke J, Jain V. Measuring the Toll of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Rural Bangladesh. JAMA Network Open. 2021;4(11):e2133167-e2133167.
47. Ludvigsson JF. The first eight months of Sweden’s COVID‐19 strategy and the key actions and actors that were involved. Acta Paediatrica. 2020;109(12):2459-2471.
48. Economist T. Tracking covid-19 excess deaths across countries. The Economist. 2020;
49. Goldsztejn U, Schwartzman D, Nehorai A. Public policy and economic dynamics of COVID-19 spread: A mathematical modeling study. PloS one. 2020;15(12):e0244174.
50. Kok DQR, Woo WT. Saving lives and livelihoods in the COVID-19 pandemic: what have we learned, particularly from Asia? Asian economic papers. 2021;20(1):1-29.
51. Chen C, Frey CB, Presidente G. Disease and democracy: Political regimes and countries responsiveness to COVID-19. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 2023;212:290-299.
52. Annaka S. COVID-19 Pandemic and Democracy. Trends in the sciences. 2022;27(9):9-17.
53. Lundgren M, Klamberg M, Sundström K, Dahlqvist J. Emergency powers in response to COVID-19: Policy Diffusion, democracy, and preparedness. Nordic Journal of Human Rights. 2020;38(4):305-318.
54. Caratas MA, Spătariu EC, Gheorghiu G. Does Covid-19 threaten global democracy. Ovidius University Annals, Economic Sciences Series. 2020;1:44-49.
55. Martinsen DS, Goetz KH. COVID‐19 and European Multi‐Level Democracy. Journal of Common Market Studies. 2022;
56. Iglesias R, Alonso A. Quarantined democracies: Policy responses to the COVID-19 and the future of democracy. Revista Espanola De Sociologia. 2020:703-714.
57. Bell D. Covid-19: democracy and hard choices in public health. BMJ. 2020;369
58. Regilme Jr SSF. Crisis politics of dehumanisation during COVID-19: A framework for mapping the social processes through which dehumanisation undermines human dignity. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations. 2023:13691481231178247.
59. Rinaldi G, Paradisi M. An empirical estimate of the infection fatality rate of COVID-19 from the first Italian outbreak. Medrxiv. 2020:2020.04. 18.20070912.
60. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. The lancet. 2020;395(10223):470-473.
61. Watch HR. Human rights dimensions of COVID-19 response. Human Rights Watch (blog). 2020;
62. Chen Q, Rodewald L, Lai S, Gao GF. Rapid and sustained containment of covid-19 is achievable and worthwhile: implications for pandemic response. Bmj. 2021;375
63. Goolsbee A, Syverson C. Fear, lockdown, and diversion: Comparing drivers of pandemic economic decline 2020. Journal of public economics. 2021;193:104311.
64. Habermas J. New social movements. 1981;
65. Kesselman M. The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics. By Ronald Inglehart.(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977. Pp. xiii+ 482. 9.95, paper.). American Political Science Review. 1979;73(1):284-286.
66. Savage J. Postmaterialism of the left and right: political conflict in postindustrial society. Comparative Political Studies. 1985;17(4):431-451.
67. Habermas J, Ben-Habib S. Modernity versus postmodernity. New German Critique. 1981;(22):3-14.
68. Kitschelt H. The transformation of European social democracy. cambridge university press; 1994.
69. Hsu Y-L, Yang Y-C. Corporate governance and financial reporting quality during the COVID-19 pandemic. Finance Research Letters. 2022;47:102778.
70. Puntis J, O’Sullivan T. Governments and public trust: A public Covid inquiry that reported quickly could shape response to the third wave. BMJ. 2021;373
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