Medical Mistrust on Prostate Cancer Screening: A mixed method study among African Americans, Caribbean immigrants and African immigrants
Main Article Content
Abstract
Objectives: The contribution of medical mistrust to healthcare utilization delays has been gaining increasing attention. However, few studies have examined these associations among subgroups of Black men (African Americans, Caribbean, and African immigrants) in relation to prostate cancer (PCa). This study addresses this gap by assessing how medical mistrust affects PCa screening behavior and to further understand perceptions of medical mistrust among subgroups of Black men.
Methods: This research employs a mixed-methods approach comprising two distinct phases. In Phase 1, a cross-sectional examination was conducted to evaluate the influence of medical mistrust toward healthcare organizations on prostate cancer screening among 498 Black men. In Phase 2, a qualitative investigation was undertaken to delve into the nuances of medical mistrust through six focus groups (n=51) and ten key informant interviews (n=10). Logistic regression and grounded theory methods were employed for data analysis.
Results: Quantitative findings unveiled disparities in mistrust among subgroups, with Caribbean immigrants exhibiting higher levels of medical mistrust. Nevertheless, individuals with a family history of PCa showed elevated likelihoods of undergoing screening, despite mistrust. Qualitative results revealed 1) differences in reasons for medical mistrust among Black subgroups, 2) cultural perceptions which influence medical mistrust and medical care seeking, 3) lack of education in relation to PCa that contributes to medical mistrust, 4) negative past experiences and poor provider communication contribute, and 5) when PCa directly affected one's life, either personally or within the family, there was a recognized importance placed on monitoring one's risk despite mistrust.
Conclusion: While medical mistrust may not significantly deter healthcare utilization among individuals with a family history or diagnosis of PCa, it underscores the variability of medical mistrust and its underlying reasons among different Black subgroups.
Keywords:
Prostate Cancer, medical mistrust, African America, African immigrant, Caribbean immigrant, screening
Article Details
How to Cite
NIPHER, Malika et al.
Medical Mistrust on Prostate Cancer Screening: A mixed method study among African Americans, Caribbean immigrants and African immigrants.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 8, aug. 2024.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/5727>. Date accessed: 04 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v12i8.5727.
Section
Research Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Gilbert KL, Ray R, Siddiqi A, et al. Visible and invisible trends in black men's health: pitfalls and promises for addressing racial, ethnic, and gender inequities in health. Annual review of public health. 2016;37:295-311.
2. Health, United States, 2015 with special feature on racial and ethnic health disparitiesCenters for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Center on Health Statistics: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016.
3. Brown T, Hargrove TW, Griffith DM. Racial/Ethnic disparities in men's health: examining psychosocial mechanisms. Family & community health. 2015;38(4):307.
4. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, et al. Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS medicine. 2015;12(12):e1001915.
5. Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, et al. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. The Lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453-1463.
6. Hardeman RR, Medina EM, Kozhimannil KB. Structural racism and supporting black lives—the role of health professionals. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(22):2113-2115.
7. Buehler JW. Racial/ethnic disparities in the use of lethal force by US police, 2010–2014. American journal of public health. 2017;107(2):295-297.
8. Hammond WP, Matthews D, Mohottige D, et al. Masculinity, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays among community-dwelling African-American men. Journal of general internal medicine. 2010;25(12):1300-1308.
9. Vaidya V, Partha G, Karmakar M. Gender differences in utilization of preventive care services in the United States. Journal of women's health. 2012;21(2):140-145.
10. Cheatham CT, Barksdale DJ, Rodgers SG. Barriers to health care and health‐seeking behaviors faced by Black men. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 2008;20(11):555-562.
11. Elo IT, Beltrán-Sánchez H, Macinko J. The contribution of health care and other interventions to black–white disparities in life expectancy, 1980–2007. Population research and policy review. 2014;33(1):97-126.
12. Woods-Burnham L, Stiel L, Wilson C, et al. Physician consultations, prostate cancer knowledge, and PSA screening of African American men in the era of shared decision-making. American journal of men's health. 2018;12(4):751-759.
13. Ravenell JE, Whitaker EE, Johnson Jr WE. According to him: barriers to healthcare among African-American men. Journal of the National Medical Association. 2008;100(10):1153-1160.
14. Whitley EM, Samuels BA, Wright RA, Everhart RM. Identification of barriers to healthcare access for underserved men in Denver. Journal of Men's Health and Gender. 2005;2(4):421-428.
15. Malika N, Ogundimu O, Roberts L, et al. African Immigrant Health: Prostate Cancer Attitudes, Perceptions, and Barriers. American journal of men’s health. 2020;14(4).
16. Wade JC. Masculinity ideology, male reference group identity dependence, and African American men's health-related attitudes and behaviors. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 2008;9(1):5.
17. Van Houtven CH, Voils CI, Oddone EZ, et al. Perceived discrimination and reported delay of pharmacy prescriptions and medical tests. Journal of general internal medicine. 2005;20(7):578-583.
18. Eaton LA, Driffin DD, Kegler C, et al. The role of stigma and medical mistrust in the routine health care engagement of black men who have sex with men. American journal of public health. 2015;105(2):e75-e82.
19. Brandt AM. Racism and research: the case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings center report. 1978:21-29.
20. Kennedy BR, Mathis CC, Woods AK. African Americans and their distrust of the health care system: healthcare for diverse populations. Journal of cultural diversity. 2007;14(2).
21. Oakley LP, Harvey SM, López-Cevallos DF. Racial and ethnic discrimination, medical mistrust, and satisfaction with birth control services among young adult Latinas. Women's Health Issues. 2018;28(4):313-320.
22. Benkert R, Cuevas A, Thompson HS, et al. Ubiquitous yet unclear: A systematic review of medical mistrust. Behavioral Medicine. 2019;45(2):86-101.
23. LaVeist TA, Isaac LA, Williams KP. Mistrust of health care organizations is associated with underutilization of health services. Health services research. 2009;44(6):2093-2105.
24. Rogers CR, Rovito MJ, Hussein M, et al. Attitudes toward genomic testing and prostate cancer research among Black men. American journal of preventive medicine. 2018;55(5):S103-S111.
25. Kinlock BL, Parker LJ, Bowie JV, et al. High levels of medical mistrust are associated with low quality of life among black and white men with prostate cancer. Cancer Control. 2017:72-77.
26. Kalichman SC, Eaton L, Kalichman MO, et al. Race-based medical mistrust, medication beliefs and HIV treatment adherence: test of a mediation model in people living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of behavioral medicine. 2016;39(6):1056-1064.
27. Thompson HS, Valdimarsdottir HB, Winkel G, et al. The Group-Based Medical Mistrust Scale: psychometric properties and association with breast cancer screening. Preventive medicine. 2004;38(2):209-218.
28. Hall MA, Dugan E, Zheng B, Mishra AK. Trust in physicians and medical institutions: what is it, can it be measured, and does it matter? The milbank quarterly. 2001;79(4):613-639.
29. Armstrong K, Ravenell KL, McMurphy S, Putt M. Racial/ethnic differences in physician distrust in the United States. American journal of public health. 2007;97(7):1283-1289.
30. Lillard Jr JW, Moses KA, Mahal BA, George DJ. Racial disparities in B lack men with prostate cancer: A literature review. Cancer. 2022;128(21):3787-3795.
31. Lowder D, Rizwan K, McColl C, et al. Racial disparities in prostate cancer: A complex interplay between socioeconomic inequities and genomics. Cancer letters. 2022;531:71-82.
32. Tsodikov A, Gulati R, de Carvalho TM, et al. Is prostate cancer different in black men? Answers from 3 natural history models. Cancer. 2017;123(12):2312-2319.
33. Roberts LR, Wilson CM, Stiel L, et al. Prostate Cancer Screening Among High-Risk Black Men. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. 2018;14(9):677-682. e672.
34. Dess RT, Hartman HE, Mahal BA, et al. Association of black race with prostate cancer–specific and other-cause mortality. JAMA oncology. 2019.
35. Lee DJ, Mallin K, Graves AJ, et al. Recent changes in prostate cancer screening practices and epidemiology. The Journal of urology. 2017;198(6):1230-1240.
36. Moyer VA. Screening for prostate cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Annals of internal medicine. 2012;157(2):120-134.
37. Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, Curry SJ. The US Preventive Services Task Force 2017 draft recommendation statement on screening for prostate cancer: an invitation to review and comment. Jama. 2017;317(19):1949-1950.
38. Miller SM, Roussi P, Scarpato J, et al. Randomized trial of print messaging: the role of the partner and monitoring style in promoting provider discussions about prostate cancer screening among African American men. Psycho-Oncology. 2014;23(4):404-411.
39. American Urological Association. Early detection of prostate cancer. 2015; https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/early-detection-of-prostate-cancer-(2013-reviewed-and-validity-confirmed-2015), 2017.
40. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Prostate cancer early detection. 2016; 2.2016:https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp#site, 2017.
41. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society recommendations for prostate cancer early detection. 2016; http://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostatecancer/moreinformation/prostatecancerearlydetection/prostate-cancer-early-detection-acs-recommendations. Accessed 7-11-2017.
42. Powell IJ, Vigneau FD, Bock CH, et al. Reducing prostate cancer racial disparity: evidence for aggressive early prostate cancer PSA testing of African American men. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers. 2014;23(8):1505-1511.
43. Presti J, Alexeeff S, Horton B, et al. Changes in prostate cancer presentation following the 2012 USPSTF screening statement: observational study in a multispecialty group practice. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2020;35:1368-1374.
44. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Jama. 2018;319(18):1901-1913.
45. Williams DR, Jackson JS. Race/ethnicity and the 2000 census: recommendations for African American and other black populations in the United States. American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90(11):1728.
46. Halbert CH, Weathers B, Delmoor E, et al. Racial differences in medical mistrust among men diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer. 2009;115(11):2553-2561.
47. Shelton RC, Winkel G, Davis SN, et al. Validation of the group-based medical mistrust scale among urban black men. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2010;25(6):549-555.
48. Pedersen VH, Armes J, Ream E. Perceptions of prostate cancer in Black African and Black Caribbean men: a systematic review of the literature. Psycho‐oncology. 2012;21(5):457-468.
49. Malika N, Ogundimu O, Roberts L, et al. African immigrant health: prostate cancer attitudes, perceptions, and barriers. American journal of men's health. 2020;14(4):1557988320945465.
50. Malika N, Roberts L, Casiano C, Montgomery S. Use of complementary and alternative medicine for prostate cancer among African Americans, African immigrants and caribbean immigrants. Journal of community health. 2022:1-8.
51. Malika N, Roberts L, Alemi Q, et al. Ethnic differences among black men in prostate cancer knowledge and screening: a mixed-methods study. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities. 2021:1-12.
52. LaVeist T. Measuring trust in health care: Medical Mistrust Index 2.1. Hopkins Center for Health Disparities Solutions Projects. Retrieved from http://www. jhsph. edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-health-disparities-solutions/Projects/MMT. html. 2009.
53. Guba EG. Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Ectj. 1981;29(2):75.
54. Lambert SD, Loiselle CG. Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. Journal of advanced nursing. 2008;62(2):228-237.
55. Shenton AK. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for information. 2004;22(2):63-75.
56. Patton MQ. Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks. Cal.: Sage Publications. 2002.
57. Pope C, Mays N. Qualitative Research In Health Care Second Edit: London: BMJ books; 2000.
58. Bartlett JW, Seaman SR, White IR, et al. Multiple imputation of covariates by fully conditional specification: Accommodating the substantive model. Statistical methods in medical research. 2015;24(4):462-487.
59. Lee KJ, Carlin JB. Multiple imputation for missing data: fully conditional specification versus multivariate normal imputation. American journal of epidemiology. 2010;171(5):624-632.
60. White IR, Royston P, Wood AM. Multiple imputation using chained equations: issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in medicine. 2011;30(4):377-399.
61. Glaser BG. The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social problems. 1965;12(4):436-445.
62. Musa D, Schulz R, Harris R, et al. Trust in the health care system and the use of preventive health services by older black and white adults. American journal of public health. 2009;99(7):1293-1299.
63. Hammond WP. Psychosocial correlates of medical mistrust among African American men. American journal of community psychology. 2010;45(1-2):87-106.
64. Lillie-Blanton M, Brodie M, Rowland D, et al. Race, ethnicity, and the health care system: public perceptions and experiences. Medical Care Research and Review. 2000;57(1_suppl):218-235.
65. LaVeist TA, Nickerson KJ, Bowie JV. Attitudes about racism, medical mistrust, and satisfaction with care among African American and white cardiac patients. Medical Care Research and Review. 2000;57(1_suppl):146-161.
66. Williamson LD, Smith MA, Bigman CA. Does discrimination breed mistrust? Examining the role of mediated and non-mediated discrimination experiences in medical mistrust. Journal of Health Communication. 2019;24(10):791-799.
67. Finkelstein DM, Harding JF, Paulsell D, et al. Economic Well-Being And Health: The Role Of Income Support Programs In Promoting Health And Advancing Health Equity: Study examines income support programs and their role in promoting health and advancing health equity. Health Affairs. 2022;41(12):1700-1706.
68. Hoffman C, Paradise J. Health insurance and access to health care in the United States. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2008;1136(1):149-160.
69. Sommers BD, Gawande AA, Baicker K. Health insurance coverage and health—what the recent evidence tells us377. Mass Medical Soc; 2017:586-593.
70. Powell W, Richmond J, Mohottige D, et al. Medical mistrust, racism, and delays in preventive health screening among African-American men. Behavioral Medicine. 2019;45(2):102-117.
71. Scharff DP, Mathews KJ, Jackson P, et al. More than Tuskegee: understanding mistrust about research participation. Journal of health care for the poor and underserved. 2010;21(3):879.
2. Health, United States, 2015 with special feature on racial and ethnic health disparitiesCenters for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Center on Health Statistics: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016.
3. Brown T, Hargrove TW, Griffith DM. Racial/Ethnic disparities in men's health: examining psychosocial mechanisms. Family & community health. 2015;38(4):307.
4. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, et al. Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS medicine. 2015;12(12):e1001915.
5. Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, et al. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. The Lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453-1463.
6. Hardeman RR, Medina EM, Kozhimannil KB. Structural racism and supporting black lives—the role of health professionals. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(22):2113-2115.
7. Buehler JW. Racial/ethnic disparities in the use of lethal force by US police, 2010–2014. American journal of public health. 2017;107(2):295-297.
8. Hammond WP, Matthews D, Mohottige D, et al. Masculinity, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays among community-dwelling African-American men. Journal of general internal medicine. 2010;25(12):1300-1308.
9. Vaidya V, Partha G, Karmakar M. Gender differences in utilization of preventive care services in the United States. Journal of women's health. 2012;21(2):140-145.
10. Cheatham CT, Barksdale DJ, Rodgers SG. Barriers to health care and health‐seeking behaviors faced by Black men. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 2008;20(11):555-562.
11. Elo IT, Beltrán-Sánchez H, Macinko J. The contribution of health care and other interventions to black–white disparities in life expectancy, 1980–2007. Population research and policy review. 2014;33(1):97-126.
12. Woods-Burnham L, Stiel L, Wilson C, et al. Physician consultations, prostate cancer knowledge, and PSA screening of African American men in the era of shared decision-making. American journal of men's health. 2018;12(4):751-759.
13. Ravenell JE, Whitaker EE, Johnson Jr WE. According to him: barriers to healthcare among African-American men. Journal of the National Medical Association. 2008;100(10):1153-1160.
14. Whitley EM, Samuels BA, Wright RA, Everhart RM. Identification of barriers to healthcare access for underserved men in Denver. Journal of Men's Health and Gender. 2005;2(4):421-428.
15. Malika N, Ogundimu O, Roberts L, et al. African Immigrant Health: Prostate Cancer Attitudes, Perceptions, and Barriers. American journal of men’s health. 2020;14(4).
16. Wade JC. Masculinity ideology, male reference group identity dependence, and African American men's health-related attitudes and behaviors. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 2008;9(1):5.
17. Van Houtven CH, Voils CI, Oddone EZ, et al. Perceived discrimination and reported delay of pharmacy prescriptions and medical tests. Journal of general internal medicine. 2005;20(7):578-583.
18. Eaton LA, Driffin DD, Kegler C, et al. The role of stigma and medical mistrust in the routine health care engagement of black men who have sex with men. American journal of public health. 2015;105(2):e75-e82.
19. Brandt AM. Racism and research: the case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings center report. 1978:21-29.
20. Kennedy BR, Mathis CC, Woods AK. African Americans and their distrust of the health care system: healthcare for diverse populations. Journal of cultural diversity. 2007;14(2).
21. Oakley LP, Harvey SM, López-Cevallos DF. Racial and ethnic discrimination, medical mistrust, and satisfaction with birth control services among young adult Latinas. Women's Health Issues. 2018;28(4):313-320.
22. Benkert R, Cuevas A, Thompson HS, et al. Ubiquitous yet unclear: A systematic review of medical mistrust. Behavioral Medicine. 2019;45(2):86-101.
23. LaVeist TA, Isaac LA, Williams KP. Mistrust of health care organizations is associated with underutilization of health services. Health services research. 2009;44(6):2093-2105.
24. Rogers CR, Rovito MJ, Hussein M, et al. Attitudes toward genomic testing and prostate cancer research among Black men. American journal of preventive medicine. 2018;55(5):S103-S111.
25. Kinlock BL, Parker LJ, Bowie JV, et al. High levels of medical mistrust are associated with low quality of life among black and white men with prostate cancer. Cancer Control. 2017:72-77.
26. Kalichman SC, Eaton L, Kalichman MO, et al. Race-based medical mistrust, medication beliefs and HIV treatment adherence: test of a mediation model in people living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of behavioral medicine. 2016;39(6):1056-1064.
27. Thompson HS, Valdimarsdottir HB, Winkel G, et al. The Group-Based Medical Mistrust Scale: psychometric properties and association with breast cancer screening. Preventive medicine. 2004;38(2):209-218.
28. Hall MA, Dugan E, Zheng B, Mishra AK. Trust in physicians and medical institutions: what is it, can it be measured, and does it matter? The milbank quarterly. 2001;79(4):613-639.
29. Armstrong K, Ravenell KL, McMurphy S, Putt M. Racial/ethnic differences in physician distrust in the United States. American journal of public health. 2007;97(7):1283-1289.
30. Lillard Jr JW, Moses KA, Mahal BA, George DJ. Racial disparities in B lack men with prostate cancer: A literature review. Cancer. 2022;128(21):3787-3795.
31. Lowder D, Rizwan K, McColl C, et al. Racial disparities in prostate cancer: A complex interplay between socioeconomic inequities and genomics. Cancer letters. 2022;531:71-82.
32. Tsodikov A, Gulati R, de Carvalho TM, et al. Is prostate cancer different in black men? Answers from 3 natural history models. Cancer. 2017;123(12):2312-2319.
33. Roberts LR, Wilson CM, Stiel L, et al. Prostate Cancer Screening Among High-Risk Black Men. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. 2018;14(9):677-682. e672.
34. Dess RT, Hartman HE, Mahal BA, et al. Association of black race with prostate cancer–specific and other-cause mortality. JAMA oncology. 2019.
35. Lee DJ, Mallin K, Graves AJ, et al. Recent changes in prostate cancer screening practices and epidemiology. The Journal of urology. 2017;198(6):1230-1240.
36. Moyer VA. Screening for prostate cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Annals of internal medicine. 2012;157(2):120-134.
37. Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, Curry SJ. The US Preventive Services Task Force 2017 draft recommendation statement on screening for prostate cancer: an invitation to review and comment. Jama. 2017;317(19):1949-1950.
38. Miller SM, Roussi P, Scarpato J, et al. Randomized trial of print messaging: the role of the partner and monitoring style in promoting provider discussions about prostate cancer screening among African American men. Psycho-Oncology. 2014;23(4):404-411.
39. American Urological Association. Early detection of prostate cancer. 2015; https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/early-detection-of-prostate-cancer-(2013-reviewed-and-validity-confirmed-2015), 2017.
40. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Prostate cancer early detection. 2016; 2.2016:https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp#site, 2017.
41. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society recommendations for prostate cancer early detection. 2016; http://www.cancer.org/cancer/prostatecancer/moreinformation/prostatecancerearlydetection/prostate-cancer-early-detection-acs-recommendations. Accessed 7-11-2017.
42. Powell IJ, Vigneau FD, Bock CH, et al. Reducing prostate cancer racial disparity: evidence for aggressive early prostate cancer PSA testing of African American men. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers. 2014;23(8):1505-1511.
43. Presti J, Alexeeff S, Horton B, et al. Changes in prostate cancer presentation following the 2012 USPSTF screening statement: observational study in a multispecialty group practice. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2020;35:1368-1374.
44. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Jama. 2018;319(18):1901-1913.
45. Williams DR, Jackson JS. Race/ethnicity and the 2000 census: recommendations for African American and other black populations in the United States. American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90(11):1728.
46. Halbert CH, Weathers B, Delmoor E, et al. Racial differences in medical mistrust among men diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer. 2009;115(11):2553-2561.
47. Shelton RC, Winkel G, Davis SN, et al. Validation of the group-based medical mistrust scale among urban black men. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2010;25(6):549-555.
48. Pedersen VH, Armes J, Ream E. Perceptions of prostate cancer in Black African and Black Caribbean men: a systematic review of the literature. Psycho‐oncology. 2012;21(5):457-468.
49. Malika N, Ogundimu O, Roberts L, et al. African immigrant health: prostate cancer attitudes, perceptions, and barriers. American journal of men's health. 2020;14(4):1557988320945465.
50. Malika N, Roberts L, Casiano C, Montgomery S. Use of complementary and alternative medicine for prostate cancer among African Americans, African immigrants and caribbean immigrants. Journal of community health. 2022:1-8.
51. Malika N, Roberts L, Alemi Q, et al. Ethnic differences among black men in prostate cancer knowledge and screening: a mixed-methods study. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities. 2021:1-12.
52. LaVeist T. Measuring trust in health care: Medical Mistrust Index 2.1. Hopkins Center for Health Disparities Solutions Projects. Retrieved from http://www. jhsph. edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-health-disparities-solutions/Projects/MMT. html. 2009.
53. Guba EG. Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Ectj. 1981;29(2):75.
54. Lambert SD, Loiselle CG. Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. Journal of advanced nursing. 2008;62(2):228-237.
55. Shenton AK. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for information. 2004;22(2):63-75.
56. Patton MQ. Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks. Cal.: Sage Publications. 2002.
57. Pope C, Mays N. Qualitative Research In Health Care Second Edit: London: BMJ books; 2000.
58. Bartlett JW, Seaman SR, White IR, et al. Multiple imputation of covariates by fully conditional specification: Accommodating the substantive model. Statistical methods in medical research. 2015;24(4):462-487.
59. Lee KJ, Carlin JB. Multiple imputation for missing data: fully conditional specification versus multivariate normal imputation. American journal of epidemiology. 2010;171(5):624-632.
60. White IR, Royston P, Wood AM. Multiple imputation using chained equations: issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in medicine. 2011;30(4):377-399.
61. Glaser BG. The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social problems. 1965;12(4):436-445.
62. Musa D, Schulz R, Harris R, et al. Trust in the health care system and the use of preventive health services by older black and white adults. American journal of public health. 2009;99(7):1293-1299.
63. Hammond WP. Psychosocial correlates of medical mistrust among African American men. American journal of community psychology. 2010;45(1-2):87-106.
64. Lillie-Blanton M, Brodie M, Rowland D, et al. Race, ethnicity, and the health care system: public perceptions and experiences. Medical Care Research and Review. 2000;57(1_suppl):218-235.
65. LaVeist TA, Nickerson KJ, Bowie JV. Attitudes about racism, medical mistrust, and satisfaction with care among African American and white cardiac patients. Medical Care Research and Review. 2000;57(1_suppl):146-161.
66. Williamson LD, Smith MA, Bigman CA. Does discrimination breed mistrust? Examining the role of mediated and non-mediated discrimination experiences in medical mistrust. Journal of Health Communication. 2019;24(10):791-799.
67. Finkelstein DM, Harding JF, Paulsell D, et al. Economic Well-Being And Health: The Role Of Income Support Programs In Promoting Health And Advancing Health Equity: Study examines income support programs and their role in promoting health and advancing health equity. Health Affairs. 2022;41(12):1700-1706.
68. Hoffman C, Paradise J. Health insurance and access to health care in the United States. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2008;1136(1):149-160.
69. Sommers BD, Gawande AA, Baicker K. Health insurance coverage and health—what the recent evidence tells us377. Mass Medical Soc; 2017:586-593.
70. Powell W, Richmond J, Mohottige D, et al. Medical mistrust, racism, and delays in preventive health screening among African-American men. Behavioral Medicine. 2019;45(2):102-117.
71. Scharff DP, Mathews KJ, Jackson P, et al. More than Tuskegee: understanding mistrust about research participation. Journal of health care for the poor and underserved. 2010;21(3):879.